Description:

_Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change_ The volumes in this Encyclopedia are: - Volume One The Earth system: physical and chemical dimensions of global environmental change - Volume Two The Earth system: biological and ecological dimensions of global environmental change - Volume Three Causes and consequences of global environmental change - Volume Four Responding to global environmental change - Volume Five Social and economic dimensions of global environmental change Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change Editor-in-Chief Ted Munn Institute for Environmental Sciences University of Toronto Canada The Earth system: physical and chemical dimensions of global environmental change Volume Editors Michael C MacCracken Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory California USA and John S Perry formerly National Research Council USA Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Chichester Baf?ns Lane, Chichester West Sussex PO19 1UD UK National: 01243 779777 International: (• 44) 1243 779777 e-mail (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk Visit our Home Page on http://www.wiley.co.uk or http://www.wiley.com Copyright Acknowledgments A number of articles in the Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change have been written by government employees in the United Kingdom Canada and the United States of America Please contact the publisher for information on the copyright status of such works if required In general Crown copyright material has been reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office Works written by US government employees and classified as US Government Works are in the public domain in the United States of America All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording scanning or otherwise except under the terms of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a license issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency 90 Tottenham Court Road London W1P 0LP UK without the prior permission in writing of the publisher Other Wiley Editorial Offices John Wiley & Sons Inc 605 Third Avenue New York NY 10158-0012 USA Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH Pappelallee 3 D-69469 Weinheim Germany Jacaranda Wiley Ltd 33 Park Road Milton Queensland 4064 Australia John Wiley & Sons Asia Pte Ltd 2 Clementi Loop _02-01 Jin Xing Distripark Singapore 129809 John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd 22 Worcester Road Rexdale Ontario M9W 1L1 Canada British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 0 471 97796 9 Typeset in 10pt Times by Laser Words Private Limited Chennai India Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Chippenham Wiltshire Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Ted Munn Institute for Environmental Studies University of Toronto Canada Volume Editors Volume One The Earth system: physical and chemical dimensions of global environmental change Dr Michael C MacCracken Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory California USA and Dr John S Perry formerly National Research Council USA Volume Two The Earth system: biological and ecological dimensions of global environmental change Professor Harold A Mooney Stanford University Stanford USA and Dr Josep G Canadell GCTE IGBP CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems Canberra Australia Volume Three Causes and consequences of global environmental change Professor Ian Douglas University of Manchester Manchester UK Volume Four Responding to global environmental change Dr Mostafa K Tolba International Center for Environment and Development Cairo Egypt Volume Five Social and economic dimensions of global environmental change Mr Peter Timmerman IFIAS Toronto Canada International Advisory Board Dr Joe T Baker Commissioner for the Environment ACT Australia Professor Francesco di Castri CNRS France Professor Paul Crutzen Max Planck Institute for Chemistry Germany Professor Eckart Ehlers IHDP IGU Germany Professor Jose? Goldemberg Universidade de São Paulo Brazil Dr Robert Goodland World Bank USA Professor Hartmut Grassl WCRP Switzerland Professor Ronald Hill University of Hong Kong Hong Kong Dr Yu A Izrael Institute of Global Climate & Technology Russia Professor Roger E Kasperson Clark University USA Professor Peter Liss University of East Anglia UK Professor Jane Lubchenco Oregon State University USA Mr Jeffrey A McNeely IUCN Switzerland Professor Thomas R Odhiambo Hon President African Academy of Sciences and Managing Trustee RANDFORUM Kenya Sir Ghillean T Prance University of Reading UK Professor Steve Rayner Columbia University USA Contents Preface to the Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change xi Preface to Volume One xvii The Earth System 1 Earth System Processes 13 Earth System History 31 Earth Observing Systems 61 The Global Temperature Record 82 Models of the Earth System 99 Model Simulations of Present and Historical Climates 114 Projection of Future Changes in Climate 126 Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone 140 International Organizations in the Earth Sciences 156 Acoustic Thermometry ACSYS (Arctic Climate System Study) 161 Aerosols Effects on the Climate 162 Aerosols Polar Stratospheric Cloud 167 Aerosols Stratosphere 169 Aerosols Troposphere 172 Agassiz Louis 175 Air Pressure 176 Air Quality Global 177 Albedo 182 AMIP (Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project) 183 Antarctica 184 Anthropocene 189 Anticyclone 191 Arctic Air Quality 191 Arctic Climate 193 Arctic Ocean 199 Arctic Oscillation 201 ARM (Atmospheric Radiation Measurement) Program 203 Arrhenius Svante 204 Asteroids and Comets Effects on Earth 204 Atlantic Ocean 211 Atmospheric Angular Momentum and Earth Rotation 211 Atmospheric Composition Past 213 Atmospheric Composition Present 216 Atmospheric Electricity 218 Atmospheric Motions 221 Atmospheric Structure 243 Bjerknes Jacob 245 Bolin Bert 245 Broecker Wallace S 246 Budyko Mikhail Ivanovich 248 Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Climate Over Geological Times 249 Carbon Dioxide Recent Atmospheric Trends 254 Carbon Monoxide 261 CEOS (Committee on Earth Observation Satellites) 261 Chandler Wobble 263 Generation 3:509 see also Chernobyl Nuclear reactors 3:509 Nuclear testing 5:247 Nuclear war potential impact 3:516 Nuclear waste conditioning reprocessing and once through cycle forms and categories geological issues 3:506 health hazards 3:507 management 3:710 management principles and practice 3:513 management solutions 3:511 Nuclear weapons 5:247 Nuclear winter 1:330, 3:149, 515 Nutrient depletion 3:584 Nutrient loss soil 3:589 tropical rainforests 3:332 Nutrients biogeochemical cycling 2:379 mineralization demineralization 2:543 3:510 Obasi G O P 4:335 Ocean observing systems 1:537 salinity patterns 1:20 Ocean carbon cycle model intercomparison 2:50 Ocean circulation 1:20, 557 Ocean currents 1:20 Ocean models mixed layer-only 1:290 Ocean temperature measurement 1:161 Oceanic tides 1:710 Oceanography 1:537 Oceans 1:450, 645, 2:76 anomalous regions 2:371 climate chemistry 3:181 environmental policy 4:279 iron fertilization 2:425 role of 1:20 tourism 3:626 Odum Eugene P 2:456 OECD 3:549, 4:6, 43, 295, 5:160 Off-shore petroleum industry 5:184 Oil Arctic environment 3:517 Oil consumption trends and predictions 3:736 Oil crisis 5:398 Oil res effect on weather and the marine environment 3:524 effects on terrestrial environment 3:523 Kuwait 3:146, 523 Oil industry Arctic cultural impacts and environmental risk tolerance 3:525 tropics 3:525 Oil shales 3:528 composition 3:529 extraction 3:530 origin 3:529 reserves 3:531 Oil spills 4:74 biological effects 3:521 Oligotrophic lakes 2:458 Oligotrophic systems 2:458, 5:426 INDEX 595 Oncorhynchus See Salmon One Hundred Million Guinea Pigs 5:51 Ongoing implementation review 5:327 Ontogeny 2:497 Open burning urban wastes 3:687 Operational Hydrology Programme Applications 1:758 Operational Hydrology Programme Basic Systems 1:758 Optimal filtering 1:388 Optimal weighting 1:388 Optimum sustainable yield OSY 4:307 Opuntia stricta 2:81 Orconectes rusticus 2:534 Organic carbon CH2O 2:523 Organic farming and biodiversity 3:533 and landscape quality 3:533 and natural resources 3:533 background 3:532 characteristics 3:533 definition 3:532 disbenefits 3:534 principal features 3:532 soils 3:533 Organic matter loss from topsoil 3:589 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD Origin of Species 2:247 Ostrinia nubilalis 2:64 Our Common Future 4:154 Overcrowded dwellings 3:674 Overgrazing and desertification 3:285 Overshoot in ecological capacity 3:298 Oxidants 2:523 Oxidation processes 2:457 Oxidation reduction reaction 2:523 Oxygen anthropogenic impacts 2:140 atmospheric 2:140 photolysis 1:676 Oxygen-16 2:544 Oxygen-17 2:544 Oxygen-18 2:544 Oxygen isotope ratio 2:546, 547, 549 Oxygen isotope record 1:273 Oxygenated compounds 2:607 Ozone 1:180, 386, 468, 3:178, 181 absorption bands 1:473 and UV radiation 1:151 atmospheric gases affecting 1:144 chemical and physical processes affecting 1:146 concentration 1:675 decreasing 1:148 destruction 1:143 effects on climate 1:152 health effects 3:652 human-related effects 1:146 integrated column amount 1:143 monitoring network 1:676 photodissociation 1:143 potential for new impacts 1:154 stratospheric see Stratospheric ozone total ozone column 1:143 tropospheric 1:281, 384, 2:608 variation in temperature and concentration with altitude 1:142 Ozone depleting substances ODS 4:65, 314, 446 Ozone depletion 1:520, 2:457, 4:74, 5:498 consequences 1:151 see also Stratospheric ozone Ozone depletion potential ODP 1:520 Ozone distribution 1:680 Ozone formation and weather 3:650 Ozone hole Arctic 1:150 Ozone layer 1:14, 4:148, 33 Ключевые слова: increase, w w, sem, ga ga, material, saxifraga oppositifolia, hn cl, international, surface, press, vice versa, national, ophysique, escherichia coli, san diego, source, denayeyer-de smet, wh m, ecosystem, management, scale, vonder haar, arabidopsis thaliana, environmental change, increased, concentration, time, von caemmerer, gru bler, abdul rahim, society, warming, emission, viet cong, water, cost, group, global, irian jaya, climate change, von holle, wa, life, atalopedes campestris, nio, resource, chichon, earth, environment, university, sustainable, sci, ha, rocha, high, tree, impact, problem, mi, specie, production, dx dt, adenosine triphosphate, dev, rn qg, abutilon theophrasti, approach, economic, puerto rico, process, otago dunedin, model, science, development, climate, form, health, hc ha, technology, change, forest, major, ciency, nm, century, bin abdullah, york, including, ozone, period, onboard blackbody, trinitrotoluene tnt, country, people, ferrians, london, celestial bodies, viejo, mauna loa, associates rangiora, community, atmosphere, policy, rate, nino, le, isohyet, hoc, long, social, north, study, region, nina, temperature, dm dt, food, pangasius gigas, monodon baculovirus, los angeles, volume, meira fihlo, sea, data, ecological, castri, homo sapiens, amaranthus retroexus, atmo-hydro-, year, environmental, number, verlag publishers, eo dt, land, air, cosmogenic nuclide, tick-borne encephalitis, area, result, chemical, river, based, uents, activity, level, nitrogen, nin, ocean, carbon, sao paulo, response, dif cult, dif culty, issue, human, enjoyably readable, pg, phys oceanogr, deschampsia exuosa, photochem photobiol, san francisco, methyl bromide, balsam, case, ep dt, del genio, natural, gas, ice, s w, jolla, teragram, future, investigaciones cient, von storch, hong kong, ninos, polychlorinated biphenyls, growth, huntsville huntsville, wreak havoc, condition, expert knowledge, plant, methyl chloroform, term, nature, atmospheric, picea mariana, energy, dif culties, bromus tectorum, mo mo, population, jas enski, global environmental, louis, rankin-de merona, polynesian heartland, local, cycle, ?rst, rondo nia, soil, trifolium repens, large