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Introduction _Courtesy of The Lord of the Rings trilogy, movie audiences have been drawn to a fantasy place called "Middle Earth," an ever-changing landscape that seems almost alien. The Lord of the Rings may have come from the imagination of two great storytellers, authors J. R. R. Tolkien and director Peter Jackson, but the landscape chosen for the movies was real. This enthralling fantasy world was actually New Zealand, a land formed and shaped by two of the most awe-inspiring yet destructive forces known to humans: volcanoes and plate tectonics. This was one instance where geology made a movie even more fascinating._ _But geology is more than just amazing landscapes. It is rocks, minerals, fossils, processes, cycles, the physical characteristics and features of our amazing planet. We are surrounded by geology—it is in everyone's backyard; it is at everyone's feet. Geology describes how our environment became what it is, in effect providing a history of the planet and its universe. Ranging from the backyard to outer space, The Handy Geology Answer Book answers nearly 1,100 fundamental questions about this most fascinating science._ _With more than 100 photographs and illustrations, The Handy Geology Answer Book takes you on a tour of our world. It answers questions on topics ranging from the microscopic formation of crystals to the titanic, eons-long processes that form islands, mountains, continents, and even planets. You'll be taken back in time to uncover the mysteries of dinosaur fossils and then catapulted toward the forefront of science, where you will learn how artificial gems are synthesized and why glaciologists fret over the effects of global warming on Earth's massive ice shelves. Along the way, you will get to know some of the famous geologists who cleared a path for future generations of scientists as they explore the mysteries of caves, mine the planet's rich mineral resources, and try to save lives by accurately predicting earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis._ _Once your appetite has been whetted, the final chapter of Handy Geology provides a solid foundation for further research, as well as helpful advice on how to begin enjoying geology as a hobby or even a career. A helpful glossary will tell you what, for example, an alluvial fan or a talus slope is._ _As scientists and writers, we have used our experience to write this book. Our backgrounds and love of nature have taken us to many of the geologic rarities of the world. We have traveled extensively across the Earth, doing fieldwork, conducting interviews with scientists, and managing many "rock hunts" of our own. We have crossed Antarctica's Transantarctic Mountains, hiked the European Alps, traveled the oceans, and witnessed the upheaval caused by the shift of tectonic plates in New Zealand and other places. We have visited almost every geologic "hot site" in America, hiking into the Grand Canyon, walking the rim of Meteor Crater, and watching an active Cascade Range volcano. We have also explored plenty of dormant sites and experienced several California earthquakes, just to name a few of our adventures. Not that we have shunned our own backyard—we live just about where the edge of the last glacial ice sheet existed over 10,000 years ago, right near the famous New York Finger Lakes, where deep troughs were carved by glacial advances and retreats over millions of years._ _In part, this book represents a distillation of what we discovered during our travels. And it answers hundreds of basic questions on that most interesting of topics—planet Earth. So sit back, grab your rock hammer and hand lens, and enjoy the scenery._ _Acknowledgments_ _The authors thank the United States Geological Survey, National Science Foundation, American Geophysical Union, numerous university geology departments, and all the sundry geologists who gather data and spend long hours in the field to help us better understand our planet._ _We also thank Kevin Hile for his patience, project management, skillful editing, and line art design; Christa Gainor for her project oversight; and Marty Connors for the green light. Thank you also to proofreader Dana Barnes, indexer Larry Baker, permissions editor Christopher Scanlon, image digitizer Robert Huffman, cover and interior designer Mary Claire Krzewinski, and typesetter Jake Oi Vita of the Graphix Group. And, of course, our special thanks as always to our agent, Agnes Birnbaum, for her help and friendship._ _Details of Geology_ _Studying the Earth_ _What is geology?_ _Simply put, geology is the study of the Earth. Like so many scientific words, "geology" is constructed from root words dating back to ancient times: geo comes from the Greek word meaning "the Earth"; it is a prefix used in other related fields, too, such as geography, geodesy, and geophysics. The alogy suffix comes from the Greek logos, meaning "discussion," and is roughly translated as "the study of."_ _How old is the science of geology?_ _Although the science of geology as we know it today is a relatively young field, insightful observations of Earth processes were made as far back as the ancient Greeks. Some of these early ideas were handed down through the ages. For example, Herodotus (c. 484-425? B.C.E.) had rather modern insights about the formation of the Nile River delta and the important role sediment (deposited by flooding) played in producing the fertile Nile Valley. The Greek historian also applied a primitive form of a principle known as uniformitarianism, the idea that existing processes are sufficient to explain all geological changes that have occurred over time._ _But many other "geological" observations by the ancient Greeks seem fanciful today. For example, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.), the famous philosopher and tutor to Alexander the Great, believed that the heat from volcanic eruptions was produced by underground fires. He also believed that air moving through caverns became heated by friction, causing these fires._ _What are some subdivisions of geology?_ _Geology is a vast field, stretching from paleontology to mineralogy. It is easy to see why, since there are so many features and processes taking place on the Earth and beyond. The following lists some important subdivisions of geology:_ _Economic geology—the study of how rocks are used, mined, bought, and sold, such as in the search for metals. In other words, economic geologists explore our natural resources and their development._ _Environmental geology—the study of the environmental effects produced by changes in geology, such as the determination of river flow and its connection to flooding, and conversely, how the geology is affected by environmental problems, such as pollution and urban development._ _Geochemistry—the study of the chemical composition of rocks and minerals; geochemists use this information to determine more about the internal structure of materials._ _Geomorphology—the study of landform development, such as how a river forms and develops over time._ _Geophysics—the physics of the Earth, including such fields as seismology (including interpretation of the Earth's interior), and the effects of the Earth's magnetic and electric fields._ _Glacial geology—how ice sheets and glaciers affect each other and the geology of an area._ _Hydrology—how water, such as groundwater flow in a karst terrain or how pollution moves underground, affects the geology of an area._ _Limnology—the study of ancient and modern lakes._ _Marine geology—the study of the geology of the ocean floor and coastline, especially with regard to how they change over time._ _Paleontology—the study of ancient life in the form of fossils, including specializations in invertebrates, vertebrates, plants, and dinosaurs._ _Petroleum geology—the study of how petroleum products are formed, found, and extracted._ _Planetology—the study of the planets and satellites of our solar system, especially with regard to their formation and how they compare to the Earth._ _Volcanology—the study of volcanoes and volcanic phenomena._ _What is the law of superposition?_ _There are no real laws in geology. After all, most of the processes, events, and sundry items attached to geology don't work in all situations at all times. But many geologists think there are some truths that work most of the time, including the law of superposition. This idea states that the rock layers on the bottom are the oldest, while those on top were formed more recently. Of course, this is not always the case, especially when mountain formation folds rock layers over, resulting in older layers lying on top of younger layers._ _What does the term cross-cutting relationships mean in geology?_ _The term cross-cutting relationships means that the rock layer being cut by, for example, an intrusive igneous chunk of magma, will be older than the magma doing the cutting. This is usually the case in practical applications of geology, especially when one is discussing faults, sills, and dikes._ _History and Geology_ _What is uniformitarianism?_ _Uniformitarianism (or the uniformitarian principle) is a doctrine that states that current geologic processes and natural laws are sufficient to account for all geological changes over time. This is exemplified in the saying, "the present is the key to the past." The concept was first formally introduced around 1788 by Scottish geologist James Hutton (1726-1797). Later, in 1830, British geologist Charles Lyell (1779-1875) originated the term "uniformitarianism" to describe this doctrine._ _What were neptunism, catastrophism, and plutonism?_ _By the end of the 18th century—often called the "heroic age" of geology—there were three major divisions in geological circles. Most of the debates at the time had to do with how surface features developed on Earth, and all three divisions had support by major geologists of the day. 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