Geology and the Earth
Book 1 of Lithology
Language: English
37.29.00=Glaciology 38.15.00=Lithology 38.17.00=Tectonics 38.45.00=Neotectonics and Tectonics and Seismology Lithology abyssal fan accreted terrain age alfred wegener alluvial fan alternate compression alternating normal america ancient civilization andean-type margin appalachian mountains area artificially augmenting ash-flow tuff asthenosphere atom beach bedrock beneath billion boundary british columbia capillary fringe carbonate platform change changing burden channel chapter chemical chemical bonds clay coastal plain coherent mass columbia plateau commonly continent continental continental margin control rod crust crystal deposit desert doe dune earth earthquake echo sounder energy erosion eruption explain exponential expression fault fine grained fine-grained matrix flood floor flow form formed fracture frost wedging fundamental particle geologic geologic hazard geologic structures geologist glacial episode glacier global warming granite greek god ground ground water high hot hydrologic cycle ice igneous individual particle island jigsaw puzzle kilometer lake land latin word layer level limestone lithosphere lithospheric plate lithospheric spreading los angeles magma magmatic activity magmatic arc magnetic stripe main component mantle marine evaporite marine invertebrates mass wasting material metamorphic metamorphism meter mineral monetary benefit mount baker mount everest mount kenya mountain narrow neck neutron-absorbing alloy niagara falls nonmetallic resource north north america occur ocean oceanic oceanic crust oceanic island oil organic component original horizontality outwash plain particle passive margin percent phanerozoic eon plate plate tectonics plume tectonics point potassiumargon method pressure pressure-release fracturing pressurerelease fracturing primary objective process quartz range recording station region representative reactions result ridge rise river roche moutonne rock san francisco sand sea sea level sea-floor spreading seasonal snow sediment sedimentary sedimentary bedding sedimentary rock seismic station sierra nevada single mass slope snow survives soil south america south dakota southeastern canada southern hemisphere southwestern pacific stream streams load structure subduction surface table tectonic tectonic activity temperature tibetan plateau time time-travel curve type unit unit cell valley volcanic volcanic activity volcanic hazard volcanic island volcanic neck volcano war water wave western canada western margin western mountains wind year yellow-orange-red hue zone
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"Geology and the Earth" C tH tA tP tT tE tR 1 Geology and the Earth. You can see the pounding surf, hear stones clink together as waves recede, feel the wind blowing in your hair. But the cliffs don't move and the ground doesn't shake. Even though the Earth appears to be a firm foundation beneath your feet, it is a dynamic planet. Continents slowly shift position; mountains rise and then erode away. These motions escape casual observation because they are generally slow, although every year events such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes remind us that geologic change can be rapid. A storm-driven wave crashes against the Oregon coast. (H. Richard Johnston Tony Stone Images) 1 CHAPTER 1 GEOLOGY AND THE EARTH 1.1 THE SCIENCE OF GEOLOGY Geology is the study of the Earth, including the materials it is made of, the physical and chemical changes that occur on its surface and in its interior, and the history of the planet and its life forms. THE EARTH AND ITS MATERIALS The Earth's radius is about 6370 kilometers, nearly one and a half times the distance from New York to Los Angeles (Fig. 1-1). If you could drive a magical vehicle from the center of the Earth to the surface at 100 kilometers per hour, the journey would take more than two and a half days. Most of the Earth is composed of rocks. Rock outcrops form some of our planet's most spectacular scenery: white chalk cliffs, pink sandstone arches, and the grey granite of Yosemite Valley. Rocks, in turn, are composed of minerals (Fig. 1-2). Although more than 3500 different minerals exist, fewer than a dozen are common. Geologists study the origins, properties, and compositions of both rocks and minerals. Geologists also explore the Earth for the resources needed in our technological world: fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas; mineral resources such as metals; sand and gravel; and fertilizers. Some search for water in reservoirs beneath Earth's surface. Figure 1-2 This granite rock is composed of different minerals, primarily quartz, feldspar, and hornblende. The mineral grains are a few millimeters in diameter. INTERNAL PROCESSES Processes that originate deep in the Earth's interior are called internal processes. These are the driving forces that raise mountains, cause earthquakes, and produce volcanic eruptions. Builders, engineers, and city planners might consult geologists, asking, "What is the probability that an earthquake or a volcanic eruption will damage our city? Is it safe to build skyscrapers, a dam, or a nuclear waste repository in the area?" BIOSPHERE ALL life is concentrated at or within a few kilometers of the surface. HYDROSPHERE Deep ocean floor 5 km deep. Fresh water and ice exist on land Earth. ATMOSPHERE 99% of atmosphere lies within 30 km of the surface Radius 6370 km Figure 1-1 Most of the Earth is solid rock, surrounded by the hydrosphere, the biosphere, and the atmosphere. 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