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Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions Asif Faiz Christopher S. Weaver Michael P. Walsh With contributions by Surhid P Gautam Lit-Mian Chan The World Bank Washington, D.C. © 1996 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing November 1996 The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views and policies of the World Bank or its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to the Office of the Publisher at the address shown in the copyright notice above. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when the reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to copy portions for classroom use is granted through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., Suite 910, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, U.S.A. The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from Distribution Unit, Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, The World Bank, 66 avenue d'Ine, 75116 Paris, France. Cover photos: Asif Faiz Asif Faiz is currently chief of the Infrastructure and Urban Development Operations Division of the World Bank's Latin America and the Caribbean Country Department. Christopher S. Weaver and Michael P. Walsh coauthored this book as consultants to the World Bank. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Faiz, Asif. Air pollution from motor vehicles: standards and technologies for controlling emissions / Asif Faiz, Christopher S. Weaver, Michael P. Walsh, with contributions by Surhid Gautam and Lit-Mian Chan. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p.). ISBN 0-8213-3444-1 1. Motor vehicles—Pollution control devices. 2. Automobiles—Motors—Exhaust gas—Law and legislation—United States. I. Weaver, Christopher S. II. Walsh, Michael P. III. Title. TL214.P6F35 1996 363.73'1-dc20 95-37837 CIP Contents Preface xlii Acknowledgments xvii Participants at the ITNEP Workshop xix Chapter 1 Emission Standards and Regulations International Standards US Standards UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) and European Union (EU) Standards Country and Other Standards Argentina Australia Brazil Canada Chile China Colombia Eastern European Countries and the Russian Federation Hong Kong India Japan Republic of Korea Malaysia Mexico Saudi Arabia Singapore Taiwan (China) Thailand Compliance with Standards Certiffcation or Type Approval Assembly Line Testing In-Use Surveillance and Recall Warranty On-Board Diagnostic Systems Alternatives to Emission Standards References Chapter 2 Quantifying Vehicle Emissions Emissions Measurement and Testing Procedures Exhaust Emissions Testing for Light-Duty Vehicles Exhaust Emissions Testing for Motorcycles and Mopeds Exhaust Emissions Testing for Heavy-Duty Vehicle Engines Crankcase Emissions Evaporative Emissions Refueling Emissions On-Road Exhaust Emissions Vehicle Emission Factors Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles Diesel-Fueled Vehicles Motorcycles References Appendix 2.1 Selected Exhaust Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles Appendix 2.2 Selected Exhaust Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for Diesel-Fueled Vehicles Chapter 3 Vehicle Technology for Controlling Emissions Automotive Engine Types Spark-Ignition (Otto) Engines Diesel Engines Rotary (Wankel) Engines Gas-Turbine (Brayton) Engines Steam (Rankine Engines) Stirling Engines Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Control Technology for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles (Spark-Ignition Engines) Air-Fuel Ratio Electronic Control Systems Catalytic Converters Crankcase Emissions and Control Evaporative Emissions and Control Fuel Dispensing Distribution Emissions and Control Control Technology for Diesel-Fueled Vehicles (Compression-Ignition Engines) Engine Design Exhaust Aftertreatment Emission Control Options and Costs Gasoline-Fueled Passenger Cars and Light-Duty Trucks Heavy-Duty Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles Motorcycles Diesel-Fueled Vehicles References Appendix 3.1 Emission Control Technology for Spark-Ignition (Otto) Engines Appendix 3.2 Emission Control Technology for Compression-Ignition (Diesel) Engines The Potential for Improved Fuel Economy Chapter 4 Controlling Emissions from In-Use Vehicles Inspection and Maintenance Programs Vehicle Types Covered Inspection Procedures for Vehicles with Spark-lgnition Engines Exhaust Emissions Evaporative Emissions Motorcycle White Smoke Emissions Inspection Procedures for Vehicles with Diesel Engines Institutional Setting for Inspection and Maintenance Centralized I M Decentralized IIM Comparison of Centralized and Decentralized IIM Programs Inspection Frequency Vehicle Registration Roadside Inspection Programs Emission Standards for Inspection and Maintenance Programs Costs and Benefits of Inspection and Maintenance Programs Emission Improvements and Fuel Economy Impact on Tampering and Misfueling Cost-Effectiveness International Experience with Inspection and Maintenance Programs Remote Sensing of Vehicle Emissions Evaluation of Remote-Sensing Data On-Board Diagnostic Systems Vehicle Replacement and Retrofit Programs Scrappage and Relocation Programs Vehicle Replacement Retrofit Programs Intelligent Vehicle-Highway Systems References Appendix 4.1 Remote Sensing of Vehicle Emissions: Operating Principles, Capabilities, and Limitations Chapter 5 Fuel Options for Controlling Emissions Gasoline Lead and Octane Number Fuel Volatility Olefins Aromatic Hydrocarbons Distillation Properties Oxygenates Sulfur Fuel Additives to Control Deposits Reformulated Gasoline Diesel Sulfur Content Cetane Number Aromatic Hydrocarbons Other Fuel Properties Fuel Additives Effect of Diesel Fuel Properties on Emissions: Summary of EPEF Results Alternative Fuels Natural Gas Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Methanol Ethanol Biodiesel Hydrogen Electric and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles Factors Influencing the Large-Scale Use of Alternative Fuels Cost End-Use Considerations Life-Cycle Emissions Conclusions References Appendix 5.1 International Use of Lead in Gasoline Appendix 5.2 Electric and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles Appendix 5.3 Alternative Fuel Options for Urban Buses in Santiago, Chile: A Case Study Abbreviations and Conversion Factors Country Index Boxes Box 2.1 Box 2.2 Factors Influencing Motor Vehicle Emissions Development of Vehicle Emissions Testing Capability in Thailand Box 3.1 Trap-Oxidizer Development in Greece Box A3.1.1 Compression Ratio, Octane, and Fuel Efficiency Box 4.1 Box 4.2 Box 4.3 Box 4.4 Effectiveness of California's Decentralized Smog Check Program Experience with British Columbia's AirCare I M Program On-Road Smoke Enforcement in Singapore Replacing Trabants and Wartburgs with Cleaner Automobiles in Hungary Box 5.1 Box 5.2 Box 5.3 Box 5.4 Box 5.5 Box 5.6 Box 5.7 Box 5.8 Gasoline Blending Components Low-Lead Gasoline as a Transitional Measure Use of Oxygenates in Motor Gasolines CNG in Argentina: An Alternative Fuel for Buenos Aires Metropolitan Region Brazil's 1990 Alcohol Crisis: the Search for Solutions Electric Vehicle Program for Kathmandu, Nepal Ethanol in Brazil Compressed Natural Gas in New Zealand Figures Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10 Figure 2.11 Figure 2.12 Figure 2.13 Figure 2.14 Exhaust Emissions Test Procedure for Light-Duty Vehicles Typical Physical Layout of an Emissions Testing Laboratory U.S. Emissions Test Driving Cycle for Light-Duty Vehicles (FTP-75) Proposed U.S. Environmental Protection Agency US06 Emissions Test Cycle European Emissions Test Driving Cycle (ECE-15) European Extra-Urban Driving Cycle (EUDC) European Emissions Test Driving Cycle for Mopeds Relationship between Vehicle Speed and Emissions for Uncontrolled Vehicles Effect of Average Speed on Emissions and Fuel Consumption for European Passenger Cars without Catalyst (INRETSDriving Cycles; Fully Warmed-Up In-use Test Vehicles) Cumulative Distribution of Emissions from Passenger Cars in Santiago, Chile Effect of Average Speed on Emissions and Fuel Consumption for Heavy-Duty Swiss Vehicles Effect of Constant Average Speed and Road Gradient on Exhaust Emissions and Fuel Consumption for a 40-to Ключевые слова: california, increase, single file, cold weather, speed, fuel injection, crude oil, international, light-duty, price, engine, f-j weber, source, monoxide, prime mover, hydrocarbon, chemistry university, manufacturers judgment, increased, combustion, demonstration project, time, roadside check, crank angle, vast array, test, direct injection, road, regenerative braking, nitrous oxide, quench layer, emission, sae, vehicle, cost, north america, pollutant, pennsylvania, catalyst, light scattering, wa, ece, sulfuric acid, gasoline-fueled cars, natural gas, heavy-duty, hc, duty, heavy, initial spark, particulate matter, 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