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_Waste Treatment and Disposal_, Second Edition PAUL T. WILLIAMS Professor of Environmental Engineering The University of Leeds, UK Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England Telephone (+44) 1243 779777 Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk Visit our Home Page on www.wileyeurope.com or www.wiley.com All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher. 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Other Wiley Editorial Offices John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA Jossey-Bass, 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741, USA Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Boschstr. 12, D-69469 Weinheim, Germany John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, 33 Park Road, Milton, Queensland 4064, Australia John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2 Clementi Loop _02-01, Jin Xing Distripark, Singapore 129809 John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd, 22 Worcester Road, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada M9W 1L1 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Williams, Paul T. Waste treatment and disposal / Paul T. Williams. — 2nd ed. p. cm. ISBN 0-470-84912-6 1. Refuse and refuse disposal—Great Britain. 2. Refuse and refuse disposal—Government policy—Great Britain. I. Title. TD789.G7W54 2005 363.72?8?094—dc22 2004016990 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-470-84912-6 (HB) ISBN 0-470-84913-4 (PB) Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production. This book is dedicated with lots of love to Lesley, Christopher, Simon and Nicola Contents Preface ix Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 History of Waste Treatment and Disposal 1 1.2 European Union Waste Management Policy 5 1.3 Waste Strategy of the European Union 8 1.4 Policy Instruments 13 1.5 EU Waste Management Legislation 15 1.6 The Economics of Waste Management 38 1.7 Options for Waste Treatment and Disposal 49 Chapter 2: Waste 63 2.1 Definitions of Waste 63 2.2 Waste Arisings 66 2.3 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 74 2.4 Hazardous Waste 93 2.5 Sewage Sludge 104 2.6 Other Wastes 110 2.7 Waste Containers, Collection Systems and Transport 119 Chapter 3: Waste Recycling 127 3.1 Introduction 127 3.2 Waste Recycling 130 3.3 Examples of Waste Recycling 143 3.4 Economic Considerations 159 3.5 Life Cycle Analysis of Materials Recycling 162 Chapter 4: Waste Landfill 171 4.1 Introduction 171 4.2 EC Waste Landfill Directive 174 4.3 Site Selection and Assessment 180 4.4 Considerations for Landfills 181 4.5 Types of Waste Landfilled 184 4.6 Landfill Design and Engineering 185 4.7 Landfill Liner Materials 187 4.8 Landfill Liner Systems 192 4.9 Processes Operating in Waste Landfills 197 4.10 Other Landfill Design Types 207 4.11 Landfill Gas 212 4.12 Landfill Leachate 220 4.13 Landfill Capping 227 4.14 Landfill Site Completion and Restoration 227 4.15 Energy Recovery from Landfill Gas 230 4.16 Old Landfill Sites 236 Chapter 5: Waste Incineration 245 5.1 Introduction 245 5.2 EC Waste Incineration Directive 248 5.3 Incineration Systems 251 Chapter 6: Other Waste Treatment Technologies: Pyrolysis, Gasification, Combined Pyrolysis–Gasification, Composting, Anaerobic Digestion 325 6.1 Introduction 325 6.2 Pyrolysis 326 6.3 Gasification 337 6.4 Combined Pyrolysis–Gasification 342 6.5 Composting 346 6.6 Anaerobic Digestion 357 Chapter 7: Integrated Waste Management 367 7.1 Integrated Waste Management 367 Index 375 Preface This second edition arises from the 1998 first edition (published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 1998) which was largely based on the UK. This new book has been substantially revised and rewritten to cover waste treatment and disposal with particular emphasis on Europe. Increasingly in Europe the European Commission legislation has had a major influence on the management of solid waste and hence the need for a European focussed text. The book is aimed at undergraduate and postgraduate students undertaking courses in Environmental Science and Environmental, Civil, Chemical and Energy Engineering, with a component of waste treatment and disposal. It is also aimed at professional people in the waste management industry. The first chapter is an historical introduction to waste treatment and disposal. The major legislative and regulatory measures emanating from the European Commission dealing with waste treatment and disposal are described. Chapter 2 discusses the different definitions of waste. Estimates of waste arisings in Europe and the rest of the world are discussed as well as the methods used in their estimation. Various trends in waste generation and influences on them are also discussed. Several categories of waste are discussed in terms of arisings, and treatment and disposal options. The wastes described in detail are: municipal solid waste; hazardous waste; sewage sludge; clinical waste; agricultural waste; industrial and commercial waste. Other wastes described are: construction and demolition waste; mines and quarry waste; end-of-life vehicles and scrap tyres. The chapter ends with a discussion of the different types of waste containers, collection systems and waste transport. Chapter 3 is concerned with waste reduction, re-use and recycling, with the emphasis on recycling. Municipal solid waste and industrial and commercial waste recycling are discussed in detail. Examples of recycling of particular types of waste, i.e., plastics, glass, paper, metals and tyres are discussed. Economic considerations of recycling are discussed. x Preface Chapter 4 is concerned with waste landfill, the main waste disposal option in many countries throughout Europe. The EC Waste Landfill Directive is covered in detail. Landfill design and engineering, the various considerations for landfill design and operational practice, are described. The different main types of waste which are landfilled, i.e., hazardous, non-hazardous and inert wastes and the processes operating within and outside the landfill are discussed. The major different landfill design types are discussed in detail. The formation of landfill gas, landfill gas migration, management and monitoring of landfill gas are discussed, as is landfill leachate formation and leachate management and treatment. The final stages of landfilling of wastes, i.e., landfill capping, landfill site completion and restoration are described. The recovery of energy through landfill gas utilisation is discussed in detail. The problems of old landfill sites are highlighted. Chapter 5 is concerned with incineration, the second major option for waste treatment and disposal in Europe. The EC Waste Incineration Directive is described in detail and the various incineration systems are discussed. Concentration is made on mass burn incineration of municipal solid waste, following the process through waste delivery, the bunker and feeding system, the furnace, and heat recovery systems. Emphasis on emissions formation and control is made with discussion of the formation and control of particulate matter, heavy metals, toxic and corrosive gases, products of incomplete combustion, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dioxins and furans. The contaminated wastewater and contaminated bottom and flyash arising from waste incineration is discussed. Energy recovery via district heating and electricity generation are described. Other types of incineration including fluidised bed incinerators, starved air incinerators, rotary kiln incinerators, cement kilns, liquid and gaseous waste incinerators and the types of waste incinerated in each different type is discussed. Chapter 6 discusses other options for waste treatment and disposal. Pyrolysis of waste, the types of product formed during pyrolysis and their utilisation as well as the different pyrolysis technologies, are discussed. Gasification of waste, gasification technologies and utilisation of the product gas, are described. Combined pyrolysis–gasification technologies are discussed. Composting of waste is described, including the composting process and the different types of composter. Anaerobic digestion of waste, the degradation process and operation and technology for anaerobic digestion are discussed. 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