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_Ecosystems Since the first edition of this book was published in 1998, the role of ecosystems in understanding environmental challenges faced by humankind has grown significantly. The ecosystem is the key concept in understanding vital links between life and its environment that lie at the core of these challenges. The second edition of Ecosystems explains basic concepts that make up ecosystem theory and examines ways the concept can help investigate environmental problems. The new edition has been revised and updated throughout to reflect latest developments. It includes a new chapter on world pattern of biomes and enhanced use of functional ecology in assessing ecosystem functioning. Ecosystem theory is first set in context of functional ecology, itself a fundamental paradigm in contemporary ecology. Following a review of the historical development and refinement of the ecosystem concept, authors explain how ecosystems function through analysis of complex interactions between life and its physical environment. Using examples from around the world, the book addresses real-world problems. Ecosystems looks at ways this can be done at a range of scales and analyses practical applications of the ecosystem concept. The increasing value of the ecosystem concept is demonstrated through its applications. This updated edition explains nature of ecosystem concept, functional roles of ecosystems, their relation to functional ecology and paramount value in analysis of environmental problems. The book is illustrated throughout with boxes, figures, tables and plates. Gordon Dickinson is Senior Lecturer in Department of Geographical and Earth Sciences. Kevin Murphy is Senior Lecturer in Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology Faculty of Biomedical and Life Sciences University of Glasgow._ _Ecosystems Second Edition Gordon Dickinson and Kevin Murphy First published 1998 by Routledge 2 Park Square Milton Park Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave New York NY 10016 Second edition 2007 Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group an informa business_ © 1998 2007 Gordon Dickinson and Kevin Murphy All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic mechanical or other means now known or hereafter invented including photocopying and recording or in any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers_ British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Dickinson, Gordon. Ecosystems Gordon Dickinson and Kevin Murphy – 2nd ed p cm – (Routledge introductions to environment series) Includes bibliographical references and index Biotic communities I Murphy K J (Kevin J) II Title III Series QH541 D535 2007 577– dc22 2006016984 ISBN 0-203-40137-9 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0 – 415 –33278 – 8 (hbk) ISBN10: 0 – 415 –33279 – 6 (pbk) ISBN10: 0 –203 – 40137–9 (ebk) ISBN13: 978– 0 – 415 –33278 –1 (hbk) ISBN13: 978– 0 – 415 –33279 – 8 (pbk) ISBN13: 978 – 0 –203 – 40137– 8 (ebk) Contents Series editors’ preface v List of plates ix List of figures x List of tables xi List of boxes xii Authors’ preface to the first edition xv Authors’ preface to the second edition xvii Chapter 1 The nature of ecosystems 1 Chapter 2 How ecosystems work: operational and support functions 27 Chapter 3 Energy flow and energetics 43 Chapter 4 Material cycles in ecosystems 57 Chapter 5 Ecosystems in high-stress environments: meeting environmental challenges 77 Chapter 6 The role of disturbance and succession in ecosystem functioning 92 Chapter 7 Life in a crowd: productive and intermediate ecosystems 106 Chapter 8 Biomes: world ecosystem types 118 Chapter 9 Human impacts on ecosystems: humans as an ecological factor 139 Chapter 10 Large-scale human impacts on ecosystems 153 Chapter 11 Global environmental change: ecosystem response and biosphere impacts 168 Glossary 184 Bibliography 192 Index 199 Series editors’ preface Environmental Science titles The last few years have witnessed tremendous changes in syllabi of environmentally related courses at Advanced Level and in tertiary education Moreover there have been major alterations in way degree and diploma courses are organised in colleges and universities Syllabus changes reflect increasing interest in environmental issues their significance in political context and their relevance in everyday life Consequently the environment has become a focus not only in courses traditionally concerned with geography environmental science and ecology but also in agriculture economics politics law sociology chemistry physics biology and philosophy Simultaneously changes in course organisation have occurred to facilitate generalisation and specialisation Increasing flexibility within and between institutions is encouraging diversification especially facilitation of teaching via modularisation The latter involves compartmentalisation of information which is presented in short concentrated courses that on one hand are self-contained but which on the other hand are related to prerequisite parallel or advanced modules These innovations in curricula and their organisation have caused teachers academics and publishers to reappraise style and content of published works While many traditionally styled texts dealing with well-defined discipline e g physical geography or ecology remain apposite there is a mounting demand for short concise specifically focused texts suitable for modular degree diploma courses In order to accommodate these needs Routledge has devised the Environment Series which comprises Environmental Science and Environmental Studies The former broadly encompasses subject matter pertaining to nature operation of environment and latter concerns human dimension as dominant force within recipient of environmental processes change Although this distinction is made it is purely arbitrary and is made for practical rather than theoretical purposes It does not deny holistic nature of environment and its significance Every effort has been made by authors to refer interrelationships provide information expedite further study_ This series intended fire enthusiasm of students their teachers lecturers Each text well illustrated numerous case studies provided underpin general theory Further reading furnished assist those wish reinforce extend studies Authors editors publishers have made every effort provide series exciting innovative texts will not only offer invaluable learning resources supply teaching manual also act source inspiration A M Mannion and Rita Gardner_ ix Series International Advisory Board Australasia: Dr P Curson Dr P Mitchell Macquarie University North America: Professor L Lewis Clark University; Professor L Rubinoff Trent University Europe: Professor P Glasbergen University of Utrecht; Professor van Dam-Mieras Open University The Netherlands Note on the text Bold used in text denotes words defined glossary also denotes key terms_ Plates 1 An example isoetid plant (Ottelia brasiliense) occurring Brazilian lakes reservoirs 31 2 Mount St Helens Washington State USA a before 1980 eruption; b immediately after 1980 eruption massive environmental disturbance event 35 3 A plant strong element disturbance tolerance survival strategy ragwort (Senecio jacobea) 36 4 A plant strong element stress tolerance survival strategy purple saxifrage (Saxifraga oppositifolia) 36 5 a Emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri); b Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) 83 6 Saguaro cactus (Cereus giganteus): Organ Pipes Cactus National Monument Area Arizona USA 87 7 Vegetation colonising scree slope island Rum Scotland 95 8 Impact West Highland Way long-distance footpath Scotland 149 Figures 11 Distribution land biomes 5 12 Trophic structure energy flow ecosystem 6 13 Physical environment biosphere 6 14 Relationship nutrient supply plant growth rate 13 15 Hydrological cycle 21 21 Triangular CSR model showing main intermediate plant survival strategies established adult phase t' _ Ключевые слова: inter-tropical zone, food, discussed, condition, nutrient, biome, nature, pressure, agricultural revolution, organic matter, industrial revolution, problem, generally, thermal regime, animal, carbon, ecology, thermodynamic information, functional, environmental issues, temperate zone, agricultural activity, mid-twentieth century, good, time, resource, brazilian lake, total ora, middle latitude, development, type, senior lecturer, surface, model, production, cast doubt, eastern desert, ha, stress, form, edn, effort, freezethaw action, intolerant sector, metabolic activity, temporary store, temperature, functional group, organic, environment, twentieth century, great lakes, theory, climatic zone, environmental, national parks, energy, ecosystems, land, biodiversity, freshwater body, cycle, photosynthetic xation, climate, efcient, emperor penguin, human impact, level, productivity, case, carrying capacity, organism, term, tidal cycle, major, function, primary, protected meristem, atomic weight, salt marshes, functioning, uvial action, rate, warmest month, forest, disturbance, community, eighteenth century, southern egypt, impact, soil, ocean, le, scale, biological, cairngorm mountains, productive, carbon dioxide, low-nutrient condition, oxford, number, earth, pattern, chapter, murphy, supply, atmosphere, northern hemisphere, tiny fraction, odum, lake, forest cover, eriocaulon aquaticum, overwhelming body, deciduous woodland, photosynthetic activity, organic residue, particulate matter, natural selection, area, element, lightning strike, current status, north america, discrete unit, material, growth, growing realisation, clay fraction, climatic, issue, natural, process, south-eastern egypt, ecosystem, wa, large, trophic, london, primary production, science, biosphere, hydrological cycle, nitrogenous fertiliser, global, developed, water, concept, increase, thermodynamic equilibrium, habitat, polar region, coral reef, factor, action, result, narrow band, tropical forest, grazing, energetics, routledge introductions, primary producer, change, scottish highlands, microbial loop, photic zone, worth noting, global warming, hall, range, juncus tridus, human, tansley, top-level carnivore, photosynthetic tissue, ecological, easily leached, conservation, year, high, boreal forest, wiley, aquatic, box, homo sapiens, vegetation, leading specialist, scree slope, life, management, coldest month, general, wife aileen, population, british islands, earths crust, organisms address, survival, specie, organic debris, support, biological xation, steep slope, highly stressed, solar radiation, magellanic penguin, british isles, plant, sonoran desert