GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 50, 4, BRATISLAVA, AUGUST1999339(cid:150)349MEDITERRANEAN  AND  PARATETHYS. FACTS  AND  HYPOTHESES  OF  AN  OLIGOCENE  TO  MIOCENEPALEOGEOGRAPHY (SHORT  OVERVIEW)FRED R(cid:214)GLNaturhistorisches Museum Wien,  Burgring 7,  A-1014 Wien, Austria(Manuscript received January 5, 1999; accepted in revised form March 17, 1999)Abstract: Paleogeographical considerations on the development of the Paratethys and the Mediterranean duringOligocene and Miocene are presented in twelve time-slices. Plate tectonic activities and the collision of India withAsia caused the destruction of the Western Tethys Ocean in the Late Eocene. The Mediterranean and the intracontinentalParatethys basins came into existence as new marine realms. In the Mediterranean Basin open oceanic connectionsexisted throughout the Oligocene and most of the Miocene. The Eastern Paratethys and the Central to Western Paratethysshowed different marine conditions and changing connections most of the time. A first period with reduced salinity,anoxic bottom conditions, and strong endemisms occurred throughout the Paratethys in a short period of the LowerOligocene (Solenovian, NP 23). It was followed by more open marine conditions with wide-spread clastic sedimenta-tion (Upper Kiscellian, Kalmykian, NP 24). By the collision of Africa and Arabia with Eurasia, the seaway betweenthe Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean was closed in Burdigalian time, but a new landbridge enabled a distinctmammal migration between the continents (Gomphotherium Landbridge). During the Middle Miocene marine sea-ways between the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, and the Paratethys opened and closed intermittently. Finally, themarine connections of the Paratethys were strongly reduced, and gave way to the endemic faunal development duringthe later Miocene (Sarmatian to Pontian).Key words: Oligocene, Miocene, Paratethys, Mediterranean, paleogeography.IntroductionThe past few years have seen a flood of new information onthe paleogeography, paleobiogeography, and tectonic develop-ment of the circum-Mediterranean region during the later Cen-ozoic. This short overview is a result of some current publica-tions (e.g. R(cid:246)gl 1998) on the subject of continental and marinemigrations and emphasizes the development of the Paratethys.The paleogeographical reconstructions must be regarded asonly sketches that can help to explain migration possibilities;many parts raise more questions than they answer. The conti-nent positions are based on the plate tectonic reconstructionsof Scotese et al. (1988). Important information has been re-vealed by the recent paleogeographical studies of Hamor &Halmai (1988), KovÆŁ et al. (1989), Boccaletti et al. (1990),Popov et al. (1993), Jones & Racey (1994), Goff et al. (1995),Jones & Simmons (1996), and Studencka et al. (1998). Themost problematic period is the middle Miocene, with its rapid-ly changing paleobiogeographical conditions and strong tec-tonic activity. Only intensive investigations in the problematictectonic regions from the south-eastern end of the Carpathians,along the Balkanides to Northern Anatolia can solve some ofthe questions. Another problem is the different opinion in thecorrelation of stages between Central and Eastern Paratethys.The recent correlations are based on nannoplankton and plank-tonic foraminifers in comparison with the chronostratigraphictable of Berggren et al. (1995).A vanishing Tethys Ocean in the late EoceneContinents in motion, the dispersal of the Pangean conti-nent, and the northward drift of India and Australia ended theperiod of the Mesozoic Tethys Ocean. These changes in theconfiguration of land and sea altered the pattern of oceanic cir-culations, the climate, and the faunal exchanges on the conti-nents and in the sea. By the end of the Eocene the TethysOcean had nearly vanished. A new Indian Ocean was born,and the western end of the Tethys was reduced to a Mediterra-nean Sea (Fig. 1). Europe was still an archipelago. Interconti-nental seas covered large areas of the European platform andof western Asia. A mammal exchange between Asia and Eu-rope was not possible. Between the stable Eurasian platformand the relics of the western Tethys, elongated deep basins hadformed. North of India a marine connection stretched to theWest Pacific. An important connection of the Tethys with thePolar Sea existed via the Turgai Strait, on the far side of theUral Mts. These seaways around Asia and the connectionswith the Polar Sea enabled warm-water exchanges and probablyexplain the sustained warm climate during the Late Eocene.SHORT  NOTE340                                                                                                    R(cid:214)GLFig. 2. The birth of the Paratethys Sea. Tectonic activities along the Alpine front and the collision of India with Asia created the intercon-tinental Paratethys Sea, and south of the orogene the Mediterranean Sea. Continentalization increased, the Turgai Strait closed and thenew oceanic circulation supplied water from the North Sea to the Paratethys.Fig. 1. By the northward movement of India the Tethys Ocean vanished. The western end of the relic Tethys connected the Indo-Pacificand the Atlantic Ocean. Northward the Turgai Strait opened to the Polar Sea, and hindered an intracontinental mammal migration. Europewas still an archipelago in the Eocene.EvaporitesLate Eocene - Priabonian - BeloglinianEarly Oligocene - Early Kiscellian - Pshekian?MEDITERRANEAN  AND  PARATETHYS.  FACTS  AND  HYPOTHESES  OF  PALEOGEOGRAPHY                           341First Paratethys isolationThe closure of marine seaways culminated with the onset ofnannoplankton zone NP 23 (Fig. 3). Dysaerobic bottom condi-tions spread in the basins. Dark laminated clays ((cid:147)Melettashales(cid:147)), monospecific nannomarls (Dynow Marlstone), anddiatomites with brackish to freshwater influences (Haczewski1989; Krhovsky et al. 1991; Krhovsky 1995) occurred fromthe Molasse Basin throughout the Carpathians to the CaspianBasin. The strongest endemism developed with a uniform fau-na of small-sized (1(cid:150)2 cm) bivalves, for example (cid:147)Cardium(cid:147)lipoldi, Janschinella, Korobkoviella, Urbnisia, and Ergenica(Baldi 1986; Popov et al. 1993; Rusu et al. 1996). This horizonis accompanied by ostracod layers. Marine faunas existed onlyin the westernmost part of the Paratethys (Lindenberg 1981;Ujetz 1996).Return to open marine conditions in the ParatethysDuring the middle part of the Oligocene (NP 24) well oxy-genated bottom conditions were re-established throughout theParatethys. This corresponds with the period of sedimentationof the Kiscell Clay. Deposition of clastic sediments and turbid-ites increased in all Paratethys basins. The (cid:147)Rupelton(cid:147) was de-posited in the Rhine Graben (Huber 1994), the Slovenian sea-way broadened. A connection from the Indian Ocean to theTranscaucasian and Transcaspian basins is strongly debated. Apossible connection is supported by recently studied sectionsin the Zagros Mts. with thin-bedded limestones and marls ofBirth of the Paratethys SeaIn contrast to Laskarev(cid:146)s (1924) definition of a NeogeneParatethys, the investigations of the Oligocene sequences havedemonstrated that the formation of an isolated Paratethys Seahad started around the Eocene-Oligocene boundary (Baldi1980; Rusu 1988). Strong tectonic activities changed the Eur-asian configuration (Fig. 2). The Tethys finally vanished bythe collision of the Indian continent with Asia. Continentaliza-tion of Europe increased, the Turgai Strait became dry land,and the Bering Bridge opened and enabled a mammal migra-tion from North America to Asia and further to Europe. TheParatethys Sea was separated from the Mediterranean. Elon-gated deep troughs stretched from the Western Alps to theTranscaspian Basin. The Danish-Polish Strait enabled Latdor-fian mollusc faunas to migrate from the North Sea to thesouthern Ukraine and the shores of the Transcaspian Basin,within nannoplankton zone NP 21 (Popov et al. 1993). In thewest a shallow seaway, the Rhine Graben opened to the north,whereas deep marine troughs stayed open in the Prealps and inthe Slovenian corridor. The first isolation of the Paratethysproduced dysaerobic bottom conditions documented by thesedimentation of black shales. In the upper NP 22 Zone, wide-spread pteropod horizons (Spiratella/Limacina marls) form adistinct marker level. In the Eastern Paratethys the subsidencewas associated with uncompensated sedimentation of darkshales (Khadum facies), hydrogen sulfide contamination andan event of sedimentary manganese ore formation. The hydro-gen sulfide contamination continued in the deep Eastern Para-tethys basins throughout the Oligocene and early Miocene.Fig. 3. A closure of open seaways caused the first isolation of the Paratethys. Dysaerobic conditions at the bottom of the basins, reducedsalinity, and strong endemism are observed. The only marine connections existed in the far west with the Mediterranean and via theRhine Graben with the North Sea.?Early Oligocene - Middle Kiscellian - Solenovian342                                                                                                    R(cid:214)GLFig. 4. During the middle part of the Oligocene the Paratethys returned to open marine conditions. The peri-Alpine seaway closed in theupper Oligocene. Around the Oligocene-Miocene boundary (Aquitanian) tropical incursions from the Indian Ocean increased. The circu-lation from the Indian to the Atlantic Ocean remained open. In the western Mediterranean the spreading of the Balearic Sea started.Fig. 5. In the Lower Burdigalian, the Molasse trough along the Alpine Foredeep re-opened, the Slovenian corridor between Mediterraneanand Central Paratethys closed. The extent of the marine realm in the area of the later Pannonian Basin was strongly reduced. Distinct similar-ities of mollusc faunas between Eastern and Central Paratethys point to open circulation and Indo-Pacific influences.Aquitanian - Late Egerian - Karadzhalgan??Early Burdigalian  - Eggenburgian - Sakaraulian ?MEDITERRANEAN  AND  PARATETHYS.  FACTS  AND  HYPOTHESES  OF  PALEOGEOGRAPHY                           343NP 24 age, and specific nanno-floras similar to those of theParatethys (pers. comm. of B. Hamr(cid:154)m(cid:237)d, Hodon(cid:237)n, and provi-sion of material by A. Hamedani, Isfahan).In the Late Oligocene, tectonic activities also increased inthe Mediterranean. In the west, the opening of the Balearic Ba-sin started with the formation of oceanic crust. The nappes ofthe Apennines were thrust northeastwards and started theircounterclockwise rotation (Boccaletti et al. 1990). The sea re-gressed from the western Alpine Foredeep to a line east ofMunich(cid:150)Salzburg. Limno-fluviatile sedimentation of LowerFreshwater Molasse started. Otherwise the open seaways tothe Paratethys broadened (nanno-zone NP 25), and connec-tions from the Mediterranean existed also in Thrace. These pa-leogeographical configurations (Fig. 4) continued in the lower-most Miocene (Aquitanian/Egerian/NN1-lower NN2). Similarmollusc faunas and assemblages of larger foraminifers (Mio-gypsina, Lepidocyclina) spread from the Qum Basin in Iran tothe Mediterranean and to the Central Paratethys.The Lower Burdigalian (upper NN 2 Zone) had extensiveIndo-Pacific connections. Tropical-subtropical faunal ele-ments continued to migrate to the Mediterranean and Para-tethys. A horizon of giant pectinids and other (cid:147)giant(cid:147) mollusctaxa is known from California to the Bavarian Molasse (Addi-cott 1974; Steininger et al. 1976; Rusu 1996). The main pa-leogeographical difference from the Aquitanian is the re-open-ing of the Mediterranean-Paratethys seaway along the AlpineForedeep, and the closure of the seaway in Slovenia (Fig. 5).The marine area between the Dinarides and the outward movingCarpathian nappes was strongly reduced (HalÆsovÆ et al. 1996).The Gomphotherium landbridgeThe counterclockwise rotation of Africa and Arabia result-ed in a collision with the Anatolian plate (Fig. 6). For a firsttime the Mediterranean was cut off from the Indian Ocean.The Mediterranean became an embayment of the AtlanticOcean. A newly formed landbridge connected Africa andEurasia and enabled a remarkable mammal exchange at thebase of mammal zone MN 4. The most impressive Africanimmigrants were the Proboscidea with Gomphotherium.The tectonic activities also closed off the marine realm ofthe Eastern Paratethys. The Kotsakhurian Sea, with stronglyreduced salinity and endemic faunas, came into existence.Characteristic are the bivalve faunas with Rzehakia,Eoprosodacna, Cerastoderma, and Siliqua. In the westernpart of the Paratethys the Alpine trough remained open, and ashallow connection existed to the North Sea through theRhine Graben (Martini 1990). In Slovenia the corridor to theCentral Paratethys probably opened again. Strong Atlanticand boreal influences are observed in the Central Paratethysfaunas. In the Carpathian Foredeep, the easternmost part inthe Ukraine and Romania became an evaporitic basin (e.g.Popescu et al. 1996; Sarata Formation, NN 3).Fig. 6. The rotation of Africa and Arabia, and finally the collision with Eurasia closed the open marine Indo-Pacific connections. TheGomphotherium Landbridge connected the continents for a first time. In the Eastern Paratethys the isolated Kotsakhurian Sea came intoexistence with reduced salinity and strong endemism. The Western and Central Paratethys remained under marine conditions, connectedwith the Mediterranean and through the Rhine Graben with the North Sea. In the eastern Carpathian Foredeep evaporites were deposited.Late Burdigalian - Ottnangian - Early Kotsakhurian344                                                                                                    R(cid:214)GLFig. 7. At the end of Burdigalian (Karpatian) the general configuration remained, but in the more western regions of the Paratethys, theAlpine Foredeep and the Transylvanian Basin became dry land. A small region in the Central Paratethys stayed in connection with theMediterranean Sea. Evaporites were deposited in the eastern Carpathian Foredeep and in the East Slovak Basin.Fig. 8. Indo-Pacific recurrence. For a short time the seaway to the Indian Ocean opened again. The Middle Miocene transgression flood-ed the entire Mediterranean and Paratethys.Latest Burdigalian - Karpatian - Late Kotsakhurian?Langhian - Early Badenian - TarkhanianMEDITERRANEAN  AND  PARATETHYS.  FACTS  AND  HYPOTHESES  OF  PALEOGEOGRAPHY                           345By the end of the Ottnangian a strong regression occurred inthe Alpine Foredeep, and in the estuarine areas of the CentralParatethys, Rzehakia faunas similar to those of the Kotsakhuri-an spread. The Transylvanian Basin also became dry land, andin the Karpatian the marine realm was restricted to the Pan-nonian Basin and the Carpathian Foredeep (Fig. 7). Along thefront of the Carpathians sedimentation was dominated by clas-tics, with evaporites in the eastern part of the basin, dated NN4 (KovÆŁ et al. 1989; Andreyeva-Grigorovich et al. 1997; Os-zczypko 1998). The Kotsakhurian Basin remained endemic,and the stratigraphic correlation between the Karpatian andTarkhanian seems to be incorrect (see below).Intermittent seaways and landbridgesA Middle Miocene transgressive highstand at the sequencecycle TB 2.3 of Haq et al. (1988) is correlated with the base ofthe Langhian (Fig. 8). Stratigraphically it is defined by theFAD (first appearance datum) of the planktonic foraminiferalgenus Praeorbulina within nanno-zone NN 4. The correlationof the Tarkhanian stage with the Karpatian by nannoplanktonzone NN 4 (e.g. Studencka et al. 1998) cannot be followed.This zone is also present at the base of the Langhian. Other-wise, unpublished results (N. Muzylev & C. M(cid:252)ller) from theTarkhanian at Jurkino near Kertch show already NN 5 at thebase of the section, below the Spirialis clay.A seaway re-opened between Arabia and South Anatolia,and a similar event also took place in Eastern Anatolia, as re-corded by marine sediments in the Lake Van area (Gelati1975). The main uncertainty is the highest marine develop-ment in the Carpathian Foredeep and in the Transylvanian Ba-sin. Tropical conditions with corresponding larger foramini-fers and molluscs were observed in the Paratethys as far northas Poland. In the Eastern Paratethys during the Tarkhanian,poorly developed Globigerina assemblages, atypical molluscfaunas, and bottom conditions contaminated by hydrogen sul-fide make a full marine connection unlikely.A marine seaway from the Albanian Korca Graben and theMesohellenic Basin to the Central Paratethys(cid:151)as proposed byStudencka et al. (1995, 1998)(cid:151)did not exist. In the Mesohel-lenic Basin, marine sedimentation ended in the Globiger-inoides bisphericus Zone (Fermeli 1997), and to the north the(cid:147)Serbian Lake(cid:147) extended onto the Dinarides (Krsti(cid:230) et al.1996). Such connections were also absent in the Aegean re-gion (Pollak 1979). Therefore a highly speculative seaway isproposed here. It may have extended along the suture betweenthe Balkanides and the Rhodopes, and continued along theNorth Anatolian Fault Zone between the Black Sea plate andthe Pontides. Further insight is expected by studies of theFig. 9. The Paratethys salinity crisis. With the Serravallian regression and by the tectonic translations along the Levante Fault, the Medi-terranean-Indian Ocean seaway ceased finally. The Eastern Paratethys again became an isolated basin with reduced salinity and endemicfaunas of the Karaganian Sea. In the Central Paratethys, all the Carpathian Foredeep and the Transylvanian Basin became isolated basinswith thick evaporite sedimentation. A reduced area around the Pannonian Basin remained marine.Early Serravallian - Middle Badenian - Karaganian346                                                                                                    R(cid:214)GLFig. 10. In Late Badenian/Konkian time a final flooding of the Paratethys occurred. Marine microfaunas and radiolaria marls point to arenewed Indo-Pacific connection. The Mediterranean remained an Atlantic embayment.Fig. 11. The end of marine Paratethys environments was caused by the closure of open seaways. A reduced connection opened only alongthe Bitlis and Eastern Anatolian Fault zones. The Sarmatian Sea turned to reduced salinity conditions and strong endemism.Early Serravallian - Late Badenian - Konkian??Middle Serravallian - Early Sarmatian - VolhynianMEDITERRANEAN  AND  PARATETHYS.  FACTS  AND  HYPOTHESES  OF  PALEOGEOGRAPHY                           347southward movement of the Rhodopes block (Kazmer &Dunkl 1998). The Aegean region underwent a shortening of10° latitude and an inward rotation of both sides of 50° sincethe Lower Miocene (Kissel et al. 1989). This leaves enoughspace for such a hypothetical seaway. Another possibility,following slightly the proposed direction of Studencka et al.(1998) would be along western Anatolia, and would avoidthe complicated structures for northern Anatolia. But thisway cannot explain the conditions of the Late Badenian/Konkian.The seaways of the Middle Miocene were short-lived. Atthe beginning of the Serravallian, coinciding with the sealevel drop of cycle TB 2.3/TB 2.4 (Haq et al. 1988), tecton-ic movements along the Levant Fault Zone again closed theseaway between the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean. Thelandbridge between Africa and Eurasia emerged for a sec-ond time (Fig. 9). The realm of the Eastern Paratethys de-veloped into the endemic Karaganian Sea. The mollusc fau-na was dominated by Spaniodontella, accompanied bySolen and Pholas. In the Central Paratethys, uplifts in theCarpathians sealed off the foredeep and the TransylvanianBasin. Extensive evaporites with gypsum and halite weredeposited. Only the area of the Pannonian Basin retained amarine connection with the Mediterranean through the so-called (cid:147)Trans-Tethyan-Trench-Corridor(cid:147) in Slovenia. Thereare different interpretations by Oszczypko (1998) of thestratigraphic position of this evaporitic event, who regardsit as Late Badenian or even Early Sarmatian, within a two-folded Badenian. In the Vienna and Transylvanian Basinsnannoplankton determinations give a youngest biostrati-graphic datum of NN 6 or NN 6/7 for the Upper Badeniansediments (comp. Chira 1995; R(cid:246)gl 1996; pers. comm. ofM.P. Aubry), and the evaporites or regressive sediments ofthe (cid:147)Sandschalerzone(cid:147) are below radiolaria- or pteropod-marls with this nanno-zonation.From the Serravallian, the oceanic circulation betweenthe Indian and Atlantic Oceans was interrupted. A world-wide temperature drop, also reflected in benthic oxygenisotope values around 15 Ma, is correlated to this event(Flower & Kennett 1993). The seaway from the Mediterra-nean to the Central Paratethys in Slovenia was closed in theLate Badenian. On the other hand, the Eastern Anatolianseaway opened again as shown by Indo-Pacific microfossilassemblages in the Central Paratethys (Fig. 10). Also ac-cording to Studencka et al. (1998) the seaway in EasternAnatolia reopened (Araks Strait), but the authors demandtwo additional independent connections for the Central andEastern Paratethys with the Mediterranean. All over theParatethys, from the Transcaspian to the Vienna Basin, a fi-nal marine transgression covered all the different facies ar-Fig. 12. The Pannonian Lake and the final isolation of the Paratethys. The increasing continentalization and tectonic uplift in the Car-pathians isolated the Pannonian Basin from the reduced salinity realm of the Eastern Paratethys. Nearly freshwater conditions with a radi-ation of the molluscs Congeria, Melanopsis and Limnocardium dominated the lake. From the Dacian Basin eastward, facies was reducedmarine with a Sarmatian fauna. After strong regressions the Maeotian transgression entered the Eastern Paratethys on the way from thenewly formed Aegean Sea during the Tortonian transgressive highstand.Tortonian - Pannonian - MaeotianEvaporites348                                                                                                    R(cid:214)GLeas. Radiolaria shales were sedimented on top of evaporitesin the Transylvanian Basin, followed by pteropod marls. Bythe end of the Late Badenian/Konkian, regressive tendenciesincreased.The endemic ParatethysThe connections of the Paratethys to the open oceans werestrongly restricted by the end of the Badenian. A general re-organization of the circum-Mediterranean area closed theIndo-Pacific connection (Fig. 11). A new small seaway sup-plied the Eastern Paratethys from the Mediterranean alongthe Anatolian Fault zones in the upper Euphrates valley(Chepalyga 1995). At the beginning of the Sarmatian, salini-ty dropped and, probably more importantly, alkalinity in-creased (Pisera 1996). All stenohaline organisms became ex-tinct. A mass production of a few groups with increasingendemisms developed. The fauna and facies were similarthroughout the Paratethys.The aquatic realm of the Central Paratethys was stronglyreduced in the Pannonian. The Carpathian Foredeep becamedry land. In the Carpathian arc, the Pannonian Lake re-mained; it showed strongly reduced salinity conditions (Fig.12). Almost all Sarmatian faunal elements vanished. Thelimnocardiids evolved as relics of the Sarmatian. Congeriasand melanopsids of freshwater origin showed a remarkableradiation. Sarmatian facies conditions continued in the Da-cian and Euxinian Basins. During the Bessarabian and Kher-sonian, a bloom of mactras took place. In the Late Kherson-ian a strong regression isolated the Black Sea Basin, whichwas flooded again in the Lower Maeotian. This Maeotiantransgression followed the new graben structures of the Ae-gean Sea at the Middle Tortonian high stand (for discussionof correlations see Jones & Simmons 1996; R(cid:246)gl & Daxner-H(cid:246)ck 1996).A further regression in the Late Maeotian led to the nearlyfreshwater conditions of the Pontian. The Pontian Lake ex-tended from the Pannonian to the Euxinian Basin, and south-ward into the Aegean Basin. This corresponds to the time ofthe Messinian regression and salinity crisis in the Mediterra-nean Basin. Modern conditions were established by thePliocene Mediterranean transgression.Acknowledgment: My thanks go to Dr. M. KovÆŁ (Come-nius University, Bratislava) and to Dr. J. Michal(cid:237)k (SlovakAcademy of Sciences, Bratislava) for the invitation to give alecture and to present these paleogeographic considerations.For renewed discussions on open problems on migration andmarine connections I thank Dr. S. Popov (Moscow), Dr. F.F.Steininger (Frankfurt a.M.), and the members of the researchprojects on Late Oligocene(cid:150)Early Miocene circum-Mediter-ranean paleobiological relations, established in Frankfurt(F.F. Steininger), Graz (W. Piller), and T(cid:252)bingen (J. Nebel-sick). The author is further strongly endebted to Dr. N. Oszc-zypko (Krakow), Dr. D. Vass (Bratislava), and an anonymousreviewer for critical comments on the manuscript. 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