February 2005 www.che.com Removing Particulates From Gas Streams PAGE 42 PAGE 36 Wastewater Treatment — Targeting Metals Facts at Your Fingertips: Cost Engineering Pump Symposium 2005 Show Preview Nanotechnology — Separating Science from Science Fiction Solubility Data and Henry’s Law Constants for Chlorinated Compounds in Water Focus on Steam-handling Equipment February Chementator and New Products TLFeBOOK unfair comparison Take the PKS Challenge—see how to get so much more than an ordinary DCS. These days, you're losing expertise, energy and raw material costs are soaring, and demands on production are higher than ever. You need more than distributed controls. You need an Experion™ Process Knowledge System (PKS) that solves a bigger problem. Connecting what you'd expect from distributed controls to added features, like superior alarm management, wireless integration, greater security, and embedded advanced applications, all built around abnormal situation management (ASM) technology. You'll enhance your operator effectiveness, increase process performance, improve your asset effectiveness, and maximize your business agility. There's really no comparison. Come see for yourself. See how a PKS stacks up against a DCS—www.honeywell.com/ps © 2005 Honeywell International, Inc. All rights reserved. adlinks.che.com/4517-01 TLFeBOOK HOE&RHBYIGmERatdeerisailgn Better sealing saves money Almost 100% oil wiping efficiency and no more oil leaking of reciprocating compressors is the result of HOERBIGER’s OT Oil wiper packing. This means considerable cost savings through reduction in oil purchase, disposal and recycle costs. BOT – the pressure balancing ring pairs reduce the friction between rings and piston rod and thereby remarkably reduce the wear of both rings and piston rod. This means longer service life of the wear parts and thus fewer shutdowns. These are only two of HOERBIGER’s engineered sealing solutions, which are the result of perfect combination of design and material. And also two of many reasons why our customers say… Contact us for more information: Sealing_CE@hoerbiger-compression.com Argentina . Australia . Austria . Bolivia . Brasil . Brunei . Canada . China . Colombia . Croatia . Czech Republic . Egypt . Finland France . Germany . Greece . Hungary . India . Indonesia . Iran . Israel . Italy . Japan . Kuwait . Lithuania . Malaysia . Mexico Netherlands . New Zealand . Nigeria . Norway . Oman . Pakistan . Philippines . Poland . Portugal . Romania . Russia . Saudi Arabia . Serbia and Montenegro . Singapore . Slovakia . South Africa . South Korea . Spain . Sweden . Switzerland . Syria Taiwan . Thailand . Turkey . United Arab Emirates . United Kingdom . United States of America . Venezuela . Vietnam www.hoerbiger-compression.com adlinks.che.com/4517-04 TLFeBOOK Total Lifecycle Care® from Therminol.® Think of it as a health care program for your heat transfer system. For over 50 years, Therminol® has been synonymous with quality and performance in heat transfer fluids. Now this industry leader introduces Therminol Total Lifecycle Care®, a complete program designed to help you get the most from your heat transfer fluid system. This kind of program is exactly what you should expect from us. After all, we’re a part of Solutia, a worldwide corporation known for quality products and innovation. Therminol’s Total Lifecycle Care® Program System Design We’ll help you build a system that’s safe and efficient. Start-up Assistance Procedures, support and onsite help to get you running. Quality Therminol Product Line World-class fluids for a range of manufacturing processes. Operational Training Enables your plant personnel to work smartly and safely. Sample Analysis Helps detect possible problems with your system and fluid. Flush Fluid and Quality Replacement Fluid Fluid products to clean and recharge your system efficiently. Trade-in Program Trade in your old fluid and earn credit towards a refill. Technical Service Hotline The best specialists in the industry are here to help. To learn more about Therminol TLC, simply call us at 1-800-433-6997 (North America), +32-10-48-12-11 (Europe), or visit our Web site: www.therminol.com. FOR YOUR PEOPLE FOR YOUR FACILITY Start-Up Assistance Operational Training System Design Quality Therminol Products Sample Analysis Technical Service Hotline Flush Fluid & Refill Fluid Trade-In Program ® Registered trademark of Solutia Inc. adlinks.che.com/4517-05 TLFeBOOK FEBRUARY 2005 www.che.com Feature Report VOLUME 112, NO. 2 Dust collectors are widely used to capture unwanted particulate matter from gaseous process and exhaust streams. While process operators have a range of options to choose from when specifying a particular dust collector design, pulse-jet filters have emerged as a favorite among CPI operators. Key design parameters and operating tips are presented here to optimize the specification and operation of pulse-jet dust collectors KEEPING PARTICULATE MATTER AT BAY . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Cover Story If you find that the sheer number of alarms installed in your plant has gone through the roof, you are not alone. While complex and demanding chemical process operations demand comprehensive alarm usage, the ability to rapidly respond to emergencies and accurately prevent and diagnose problems demands a well-thought-out alarm strategy GETTING A HANDLE ON PLANT ALARMS . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Engineering Practice     Knowing the solubility of chlorinated compounds in   3OLUBILITYINWATER PPMWT water is important, because  even at very low concentra-  tions (ppm or less), such  compounds can result in  concentrations in air at the air-water interface that  exceed the threshold-limit value for human exposure, as well as the lower-explo-         "OILINGPOINT + -ONOCHLORINATEDALKANES $ATA #ORRELATION !ROMATICS $ATA #ORRELATION sion limit. Water solubility data and Henry's Law constants are presented here for a wide variety of chlorinated compounds in water CHLORINATED COMPOUNDS: SOLUBILITY DATA . . . . . 50 IN THIS ISSUE COVER STORY 36 Feature Report Alarm management — Help is on the way Process and system alarms are intended to assure safe, efficient process-plant. But when too many such devices are present, and they are repeatedly activated, operators may come to ignore or disable them, defeating their purpose all together. Follow this plan to streamline and prioritize your alarms, to strengthen operating efficiency, minimize abnormal situations and avert tragedies NEWS 15 Chementator • A new processmonitoring tool passes field tests • Electric discharge zaps VOCs, without additional fuel • High-capacity, mass-transfer vortex jet flow elements and trays • Fieldbus update (p. 15) • A molecular-designer sorbent removes riboflavin from foodstuffs • Halide injection shows promise for reducing Hg emissions from coal plants • Making sabotage visible mechanisms are making it easier • Extremophile bacteria that than ever to close the thrive on radioactive waste discov- wastewater loop ered • Solid-state hydrogen sensors (p. 16) • A more-efficient way to separate oil and water (p. 17) • Using fullerenes to optimize surfaces for anti-wear applications • Sonic fusion (p. 18) •Ionic liquids show promise as an electrolyte in the next generation of Li-ion bateries • A new use for starch (p. 19) •Using waste heat to lower desalination costs • LDPE license agreement • A new sweetner is easier on the body (p. 20) 21 Newsfront Innovation abounds in wastewater treatment Facing strict limits on what they can discharge, and rising ENGINEERING 33 Facts at Your Fingertips: Cost engineering This reference card bring together some of the key equations needed for estimating capital equipment costs and annual operating costs. Equations include those for cost estimation using scaling factors, inflation and depreciation, present worth analysis, and internal rate of return 42 Engineering Practice: Design guide for dust collectors Consider these factors when selecting, specifying and operating dust collectors to remove unwanted particulate matter from gaseous process and exhaust streams costs for raw inlet water, process 50 Engineering Practice: Solubility operators are setting their sights and Henry's Law constants for on cost-effective and technologi- chlorinated compounds in water cally feasible ways to maximizine The data and new correlation pre- wastewater reuse. Advances in sented here are appropriate even membranes and other treatment for very low concentrations TLFeBOOK CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 3 adlinks.che.com/4517-06 TLFeBOOK IN THIS ISSUE Economic Indicators Newsfront In the news: Saudi Aramco/Snamprogetti S.p.A. and USFilter are adding 2.5-million-bbl/d seawatertreatment capacity in Saudi Arabia; Johns Mansville is building a $100-million facility to make pipe insulation materials in Ohio; Great Lakes Chemical has voluntarily ceased production of certain chemicals in Indianapolis, in favor of "greener" alternatives; MerckKgaA is undertaking a $10-million expansion of a mixed-liquid crystal unit in Korea; Shin-Etsu Handotai is building a plant to produce 200,000 silicon wafers/month in Vancouver, Wash.; and more Wastewater treatment varies widely from plant to plant. Despite the site-specific makeup of the specific treatment train, many process operators are focusing on a common theme — how to use more recycled water in the plant to cope with shortages in fresh-water supplies (and attendant cost increases) WASTEWATER: CLOSING THE LOOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 PLANT AND COMPANY NEWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Facts at Your Fingertips It may have been a while since you learned all of those basic cost engineering equations —such as how to estimate costs using scaling factors, how to calculate inflation and depreciation, present worth analysis, and internal rate of return. This handy reference card brings together some of the key equations needed for estimating capital equipment costs and annual operating costs Chementator These technology advances are profiled in Chementator this month: Using fullerenes to optimize anti-wear properties; Halide injection shows promise for reducing mercury emissions; Extremophile bacteria that thrive on radioactive waste discovered; A solid-phase-extraction sorbent selectively removes riboflavin, but not other desirable vitamins; A new process-monitoring tool passes field tests; A VOC-destruction process that combines zeolite absorption with electric discharge decomposition; Energy-efficient desalination; and more COST ENGINEERING EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 SPOTLIGHT ON EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . 15 EQUIPMENT & SERVICES 26 Focus: Steam handling Discussed here are products ranging from steam traps and devices for managing and monitoring steam temperature, to improved insulation, materials of construction, and clean-in-place options EQUIPMENT & SERVICES 34D-1 Show Preview: Pump Symposium 2005 The 22nd International Pump Users Symposium will return to Houston February 28–March 3. The technical program and short courses offered are described here, as are a sampling of the pump-related products that will be on display . Note that this Show Preview appears only in Domestic issues of CE 34I-1 February New Products: Among the new products profiled in this article — which appears only in International issues of CE — are a controller for both simple Editor’s note 1: Chemical Engineering’s CE Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) can now be downloaded from our website. While regular CE subscribers will retain access to the latest data in our printed version (or pdf files on www.che.com/ei), upgraded CEPCI users will have the ability to access, query and print both current and historical databases. NOTE: A special introductory price of $295/yr — a $200 savings off of the regular $495 price — is available for a limited time. This service is entirely separate from subscriptions and complex heating tasks, new simulation software, a machine that fills vials with powder accurately, a new datalogging system for IR thermometer data, a more-flexible polyurethane foam insulation material; and more BUSINESS 69 Mergers and acquisitions; Business deals; Construction spotlight COMMENTARY 7 Editor's Letter: Nanotechnology — Don't let science fiction trump science While the ability to synthesize and manipulate matter in nanometer-scale dimensions has heralded many impressive discoveries already, cautious observers fear potentially diabolical consquences, should this new technological paradigm be abused or misappropriated. If the possibilities of nanotechnology are ever to be fully exploited, its potential consequences mitigated, opponents and proponents are going to have to work together DEPARTMENTS • Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 • Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 12 • Who's Who . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 • Reader Service page. . . . . . . . . . . 57 • Economic Indicators . . . . . . . . 69–70 ADVERTISERS • CE's Build Your Engineering Library Book/CD Series . . . . . . . 34 • Call for Papers: ChemShow 2005. . 35 • AchemAmerica 2005 Show . . . . . 55 • Product Showcase . . . . . . . . . 60–61 • Classified Advertising . . . . . . . 62–66 • Advertiser Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 COMING IN MARCH Look for: Features on: Control systems, and Heat transfer fluids; Engineering articles on: Managing pH during wastewater treatment, Drying and granulating delicate products, Specifying rotary valves for pneumatic conveying; News on: Flowmeter innovations; Focus on Piping; Interphex Show Preview; Equations for bulk-solids-transport; and more Cover art: David Whitcher to CE’s print and online magazines, and will provide realtime access to the following: • Electronic notification (and eventual delivery) of monthly updates as soon as they are available (up to two weeks before the print copies arrive) • All annual data archives (1947 to present) • Monthly data archives (1970 to present) • A selection of helpful cost-estimation articles (in PDF format) that have run in past issues of CE To sign up for this service, go to www.che. com/pindex/subscribe Editor’s note 2: Chemical Engineering invites you to check out its "Build Your Engineering Library" Book Series. The detailed Table of Contents for each of the 12 titles can be viewed, and orders can be placed, at www.che.com (Click on the CE Book Series icon on the left margin of the home page). These books include more than 3,500 pages of practical, "how to" engineering articles," written by engineers, for engineers" from the pages of Chemical Engineering, and can be purchased as spiral-bound books, perfect-bound books, or CD-ROMs. Place your order now to lock in Frequency discounts! TLFeBOOK CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 5 The Choice is Easy. More than 80% of the failures in a safety application occur with the sensors and final control elements. The DeltaV™ SIS system, at the heart of Emerson’s smart SIS solution communicates digitally with intelligent field devices to diagnose and automatically proof test critical elements of your safety functions. This helps ensure your process shuts down when it should— not when it shouldn’t. And, only DeltaV SIS combined with Emerson’s certified safety services helps simplify your safety lifecycle compliance efforts in accordance with the new international safety standard—IEC 61511. The choice is really that easy. For more about Emerson’s smart SIS solution, visit EasyDeltaV.com/SIS . The Emerson logo is a trademark and a service mark of Emerson Electric Co. © 2004 Emerson Electric Co. www.EasyDeltaV.com/SIS adlinks.che.com/4517-07 TLFeBOOK Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal Awards for Editorial Excellence Editor’s Page Published since 1902 An Access Intelligence Publication PUBLISHER NELLA VELDRAN Publisher nveldran@che.com EDITORS NICHOLAS P. CHOPEY Editor-in-Chief nchopey@che.com SUZANNE A. SHELLEY Managing Editor sshelley@che.com GERALD ONDREY Senior Editor gondrey@che.com (Frankfurt) REBEKKAH MARSHALL Associate Editor rmarshall@che.com JOAN SCHWEIKART Assistant Editor jschweikart@che.com CONTRIBUTING EDITORS CHARLES BUTCHER TAKESHI KAMIYA EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD JOHN CARSON Jenike & Johanson, Inc. DAVID DICKEY MixTech, Inc. MUKESH DOBLE IIT Madras, India HENRY KISTER Fluor Corp. TREVOR KLETZ Loughborough University, U.K. GERHARD KREYSA DECHEMA e.V. RAM RAMACHANDRAN BOC INFORMATION SERVICES ROBERT PACIOREK Director, Information Technology rpaciorek@accessintel.com MARKETING DEBORAH SCHALM Director of Marketing dschalm@chemweek.com ERIN DONNELLY Marketing Design Manager edonnelly@chemweek.com ART & DESIGN DAVID WHITCHER Art Director dwhitcher@che.com LINDA LEE NIGRA Editorial Production Manager lnigra@che.com PRODUCTION MICHAEL D. 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Morris, IL 61054-7580 Fax: 815-734-5882 email: echm@kable.com ADVERTISING REQUESTS: see p. 68 Nanotechnology – Don't Let Science Fiction Trump Science While nanotechnology — which pertains to the ability to manipulate matter at particle sizes of 100 nanometers (nm) or less1 — is still in its infancy, awareness of it is no longer confined to research circles. Rather, ongoing publicity about many promising breakthroughs has, in recent years, thrust nanotechnology into the public eye. At infinitesimally small particle sizes, metals, metal oxides, ceramics, polymers and novel carbon derivatives (carbon nanotubes and buckyballs) attain extraordinary ratios of surface area to diameter, advantageous particle geometries, and notable improvements in various material properties. Nanoscaled additives already figure prominently in today's precision semiconductor-polishing slurries, advanced composites that have increased conductivity, catalytic activity, hardness, self-cleaning capabilities, and anti-microbial properties, and many consumer products. Nanoscaled materials and manufacturing techniques also show promise for making better batteries, fuel cells, catalysts, and gas sensors, and for helping potent drugs reach their intended targets in the body more effectively and with fewer toxic side effects (CE, Dec. 2002, p. 23ff; Jan. 2003, p. 27ff). Some even envision Lilliputian devices that could be programmed to repair clogged arteries and kill cancer cells, or dramatically improve the detection of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear hazards. Cautious observers, however, see nanoscientists as dabbling with dangerous forces they cannot control, and note that many key questions remain unanswered — such as how might the absorption, ingestion or inhalation of nanoparticles affect human and animal health and the environment? Such critics also argue that nanotechnology’s thorny ethical and societal implications are not being explored or debated meaningfully enough. For instance, what menacing or diabolical consequences might arise should this powerful new technology ever be co-opted or misappropriated by terrorists, criminals or dictators and used for evil purposes? One could imagine, for instance, the production of ultra-effective nanoscaled devices to deliver chemical and biological agents, and remote assassination devices that would be difficult to detect or avoid. Ardent opponents have called for everything from legislative restrictions to a complete moratorium on all nano-related R&D. Others argue that such actions would be unethical or even immoral, because the potential gains, especially in medicine, energy management, material science and national security, are so great. Such a ban would also push the research underground — as happened to some extent when efforts were mobilized to restrict R&D on cloning, stem-cell use and genetically modified foods. This could lead to espionage and the theft of intellectual property, and a black market that would no longer be within the reach of regulators. The scientific and engineering community must address the backlash, rather than ignoring these dissenting voices. Only by modeling and analyzing potential problems, debating the issues, and implementing meaningful regulatory controls can we close the gap between science and science fiction. And only then can we effectively mitigate any harmful consequences of nanotechnology, and still fully realize its potential.2 Suzanne Shelley 1. To lend perspective: There are one billion nm in one meter (3.28 ft); one thousand nm in one micrometer. 2. This editorial was adapted from a chapter, written by this author, entitled Nanotechnology — Turning Basic Science into Reality, that appears in the forthcoming book: “Nanotechnology: Environmental Implications and Solutions,” Theodore, L., and Kunz, R., John Wiley, March 2005 (ISBN: 0-471-69976-4). CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUTARLYFe20B0O5 O7K adlinks.che.com/4517-08 Postscripts, corrections December 2004, Flashpoints Are Affected by Process Pressure, pp. 50–53: The address and telephone number for the author are now as follows: Chilworth Technology, Inc., 250 Plainsboro Rd., Bldg. #7, Plainsboro, NJ 08536; Phone: 609-799-4449. TLFeBOOK adlinks.che.com/4517-09 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUTALRFYe2B0O05OK9 adlinks.che.com/4517-10 Calendar NORTH AMERICA Paper Chemicals. Chemical Week (New York, N.Y.). Phone: 212-621-4978; Fax: 212-621-4970; Email: reg@chemweek.com New Orleans, La. Feb. 24–25 Clean Air Technologies & Strategies. Institute of Clean Air Companies (Washington, D.C.). Phone: 202- 457-0911; Fax: 202-331-1388; Email: CATS@icac.com Baltimore, Md. Mar. 8–10 NPRA Annual Meeting. National Petrochemical & Refiners Assn. (Washington, D.C.). Phone: 202-457-0480; Fax: 202-457-0486; Web: npra.org San Francisco, Calif. Mar. 13–15 30th World Petrochemical Review. Dewitt & Com- pany, Inc. (Houston, Tex.). Phone: 281-878-7299; Fax: 281-878-7210; Web: dewittworld.com Houston, Tex. Mar. 29–31 20th Annual World Petrochemical Conference. CMAI (Houston, Tex.). Phone: 281-531-4660; Fax: 281- 531-9966; Web: cmaiglobal.com Houston, Tex. Mar. 29–31 The 8th Annual Chemical Industry Information Technology Forum. Chemical Week (New York, N.Y.). Phone: 212-621-4978; Fax: 212-621-4970; Email: reg@chemweek.com Philadelphia, Pa. Mar. 30–31 International Petrochemical Conference. Na- tional Petrochemical & Refiners Assn. (Washington, D.C.). Phone: 202-457-0480; Fax: 202-457-0486; Web: npra.org San Antonio, Tex. Apr. 3–5 Corrosion 2005. National Assn. of Corrosion Engineers (Houston, Tex.). Phone: 281-228-6200; Fax: 281-228-6300; Web: nace.org Houston, Tex. Apr. 3–7 2005 AFS Annual Conference & Exposition. American Filtration & Separations Society (Richfield, Minn.). Phone: 612-861-1277; Fax: 612-861-7659; Web: afssociety.org Atlanta, Ga. Apr. 10-13 AIChE 2005 Spring Meeting. American Institute of Chemical Engineers (New York, N.Y.). Phone: 212-591- 7338; Fax: 212-591-8894; Web: aiche.org Atlanta, Ga. Apr. 10–14 AchemAmerica 2005. Dechema e.V. (Frankfurt, Germany). Phone: +49-69-7564-0; Fax: +49-69-7564-201; Email: achemamerica@dechema.de Mexico City, Mexico Apr. 12–15 (Continues on p. 12) TLFeBOOK TLFeBOOK Calendar adlinks.che.com/4517-12 FLEX-KLEEN HAS A SOLUTION TO YOUR DUST PROBLEMS Specialists in: • Process Dust Control • Product Recovery • Air Pollution Control • Engineered Designs • Systems Design and Fabrication • Turn-key Baghouse Field Services Types of Systems: • Bin Vent Filters • Welded Modules • High Pressure Units • High Vacuum Units • Cartridge or Pleated Filters • Collector Upgrades, Rebuilds and Conversions Flex-Kleen Division Your Single Source for Clean Air 955 West Hawthorn Drive, Itasca, IL 60143 (630) 775-0707 FAX (630) 875-3212 info@flex-kleen.com www.flex-kleen.com NEW!! On-site Baghouse Services adlinks.che.com/4517-13 12 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 Interphex 2005. Reed Exhibitions (Norwalk, Conn.). Phone: 203-840-5427; Fax: 203-840-9427; Web: reedexpo.com New York, N.Y. Apr. 26–28 EUROPE StocExpo 2005: European Bulk Liquid Storage Terminal Operations Conference and Exhibition. StocExpo (Surrey, U.K.). Phone: +44-20-8648-7078; Fax: +44-208-687-4130; Web: stocexpo.com Rotterdam, The Netherlands Mar. 1–3 The 3rd Annual European Senior Financial Of- ficer Meeting. Chemical Week (New York, N.Y.). Phone: 212-621-4978; Fax: 212-621-4970; Email: reg@chemweek.com Frankfurt, Germany Apr. 6–7 Hannover Fair 2005. Deutsche Messe AG (Hannover, Germany). Phone: +49-511-89-31615; Fax: +49-511-89- 32693; Web: messe.de Hannover, Germany Apr. 11–15 Global Petrochemicals Conference and Technol- ogy Showcase. World Refining Assn. (London, U.K.). Phone: +44-207-067-1800; Fax: +44-207-242-2673; Web: wraconferences.com Cologne, Germany April 26–27 12th International Trade Fair for Sensorics, Mea- suring and Testing Technologies. AMA Service GmbH (Wunstorf, Germany). Phone: +49-5033-9839-0; Fax: +49-5033-1056; Web: sensor-test.com Nuremberg, Germany May 10–12 ASIA & ELSEWHERE 6th Annual Refining & Petrochemicals in the Mid- dle East Conference. World Refining Assn. (London, U.K.). Phone: +44-207-067-1800; Fax: +44-207-242-2673; Web: wraconferences.com Dubai, UAE Feb. 20–21 The 10th Annual Asia Pacific Chemical Industry Meeting. Chemical Week (New York, N.Y.). Phone: 212-621-4978; Fax: 212-621-4970; Email: reg@chemweek.com Bangkok, Thailand Mar. 1–2 Win 2005 – World of Industry. Hannover-Messe In- ternational (Istanbul, Turkey). Phone: +90-212-3346900; Fax: +90-212-3346934; Web: win-fair.com Istanbul, Turkey Mar. 17–20 2005 China (Shanghai) International Chemical Equipment and New Technology Exhibition. Shanghai Maidawei Exhibition Service Co. (Shanghai). Phone: +86-21-52040691; Fax: +86-21-52040691; Web: sohu.com Shanghai May 30–June 1 ■ Joan Schweikart TLFeBOOK Key solutions that turn your business around. On-site gas supply, customized to fit your needs. Linde Gas knows how to turn on-site production of oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen into your best advantage. Our ECOVAR® supply systems based on standard plants ensure maximum cost efficiency while providing the flexibility and reliability your business demands. Linde’s technical expertise and a full range of plant types are the key to solutions tailor-made to your needs and local environment. If you want an onsite oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen supply solution that unlocks your business potential, then talk to us. Linde Gas – ideas become solutions. Linde AG | Linde Gas Division Phone: +49 89 74 46-0 | Fax: +49 89 74 46-1230 www.linde-gas.com adlinks.che.com/4517-14 TLFeBOOK She doesn’t need to understand biocatalysis. She needs to feel better. She’s waiting for the small miracle – the magic potion that can turn her life around. Maybe you have that elixir. But you need to get it to market fast. 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In North America: 1.888.226.8474 In Europe: +800 74 663 372 Email: info.dpc@dsm.com Or visit: www.dsmpharmachemicals.com DSM Pharma Chemicals • Chiral Technologies • Biocatalysis • Fermentation • Oxidation • Homogeneous Catalysis ©2004 DSM Pharma Chemicals adlinks.che.com/4517-15 TLFeBOOK ChementatoR CHEMENTATOR Edited by Gerald Ondrey February 2005 A new process-monitoring tool passes field tests *ÀœViÃà /i“«iÀ>ÌÕÀi Ìi“«iÀ>ÌÕÀi Vœ?ÌÀœ Most online monitors (such as one em- is determined by measuring the enthalpy ploying infrared [IR], near IR, ultravio- changes in the heat-transfer fluid. let, or Raman, spectroscopy) can only be ap- The first field trials of Coflux control plied to monitoring those species with clear have been successfully completed at optical absorption characteristics. Because the Horsforth, U.K. site of Clariant most process changes have an identifiable Chemicals (Basel, Switzer- thermal fingerprint, calorimetry has poten- land). There, a 10-L constanttial as an alternative for online monitoring, flux reaction calorimeter, not only of chemical but also of physical and made of Hastelloy, was used biological processes. However, poor accuracy, to continuously monitor two slow response and complex procedures of different unit operations traditional heat-flow calorimetry make it — powder dissolution and a unsuitable for routine process monitoring, chemical reaction — without says Robert Ashe, chairman and technical interruption, says Ashe. Furdirector of Ashe Morris Ltd. (Hertfordshire, ther trials are currently being U.K.; edlinks.che.com/4517-531). Now, with Ashe Morris’ patented constant-flux control (Coflux) technology, very fast and accurate (±0.1%) measurements are possible with virtually no precalibration, he says. Coflux is based on the constant-flux reactor (CE, November 2003, p. 25), which varies the heating or cooling power by regulating the heat-transfer area (diagram) rather than the temperature of the heat-transfer fluid. When the device is used as a calorimeter, the heat entering or leaving the vessel performed at other operating companies, including AstraZeneca Plc. (Macclesfield, U.K.). The Coflux technology has been licensed to Syrris (Hertfordshire, U.K.; edlinks.che.com/4517-532) to develop laboratory-scale reaction calorimeters, which will be supplied to Radleys (Essex, U.K.; edlinks.che.com/4517-533) as modules for Radleys’ LARA Controlled-Laboratory Reactor. The LARA modules are expected to be commercially available in mid 2005. Electric discharge zaps VOCs, without additional fuel Mitsubishi Electric Corp. (Tokyo; edlinks.che.com/4517534) has developed a process that combines zeolite absorption with electric-discharge decomposition 0OLLUTED GAS #LEANED GAS to destroy volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from gas streams. Normally, absorption is used for gas streams with low VOC concentrations, and incineration is HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRODE 'LASSTUBE :EOLITE 'ROUNDED ELECTRODE required for very high VOC loads. Because voltage is applied and an electric discharge the new process requires no additional fuel, completely decomposes hydrocarbon VOCs the operating costs are about half those of into CO2 and water. During this time, the incineration. Emissions of CO2 are one-half other three units continue to absorb VOCs. to one-tenth those of incineration, says the The switching from adsorption to discharge firm, and those of NOx are one-half. operation is repeated periodically. The The system (diagram) consists of four system is said to be most effective for gas parallel units, each packed with a hydro- streams with a VOC concentration of 20 to Spinning internals HAT International Ltd. (Nelson, U.K.; edlinks.che.com/4517549) has become the exclusive global licensee for the range of high-capacity mass-transfer internals known as Highspeed vortex jet flow elements and trays. Highspeed systems, developed at the University of Berlin and commercialized by Gesip GmbH (Berlin, Germany; edlinks.che.com/4517-550), are based on axial cyclone technology using a swirler (static mixer) to both mix and separate gas and liquid streams with high efficiency (CE, July 2000, p. 27, 29). Applications to date include natural gas dehydration with glycol, distillation systems, and gas-oil separation at both high and low pressures. Highspeed systems are said to outperform the latest random and structured packings as well as alternative cyclone-technology products. Fieldbus phobic zeolite. Glass insulating tubes containing high-voltage (20 kV) electrodes pass through the zeolite bed, and the ground electrodes (perforated plates) are at both sides of the units. Contaminated gas is blown through the units. When a sufficient amount of VOCs has become absorbed on the zeolite in one of the units, the high 200 ppm. A unit capable of treating 10,000 m3/h of gas is expected to cost less than, and occupy one-fourth the space of, that required for combustion processes, says the firm. Patents have been applied for for the new technology, which is expected t(oCobneticnoumesmoenrcpi.a1l7ly) available in late 2006. This month, BP Chemicals, Inc. (Lima, Ohio; edlinks.che. com/4517-551) is hosting a field demonstration of Foundation fieldbus (FF) high-speed ethernet (HSE) and flexible-function block (FFB()Cteocnhtninouloegsyoant pits. 17) (Continues on p. 16) CHECMHIECMAILCEANLGEINNGEIENREIENRGINWGWWWW.CWH.EC.HCEO.MCOFMEBMROUTNALRTFHYe2B00O54 OK15 CHEMENTATOR 3ELF ASSEMBLY A molecular-designer sorbent removes riboflavin from foodstuffs -ONOMERS 0OLYMER #ROSSLINKER IZATION Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is very sensitive to light; its decomposition products can alter the flavor and reduce the nutrients in beer, 7ASH wine and dairy products. Last month, MIP Technologies AB (Lund, Sweden; edlinks. 2EBINDING che.com/4517-535) launched a new solid- self-assembly process, prior to and during phase-extraction (SPE) sorbent that selec- polymerization. The latter takes place in the tively removes riboflavin without removing presence of a cross linker. After polymeriza- other desirable vitamins. The new sorbent tion, the template is washed away, leaving promises to be a simpler way to remove ri- behind a polymer network with functional boflavin compared to the current extraction groups in the correct locations, thus providprocesses (such as chromatography), which ing a binding site that mimics the template. are time-consuming and complex, says chief operating officer Christine Widstrand. The new sorbent is a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) called MIP4SPERiboflavin. MIPs are stable polymers in which arti- The new MIP is suitable for analytical applications, and is amenable to scaleup for large-scale extraction of riboflavin from food products, says Widstrand. Last month, the firm also signed a research and development ficial receptor sites have been created to agreement with FeF Chemicals A/S (Køge, bind components; in this case, riboflavin. Denmark; edlinks.che.com/4517-536), a sub- They are made (diagram) in the presence of sidiary of Novo Nordisk A/S (Copenhagen), to a template molecule, which interacts with develop separation media with potential for functional monomers, via a spontaneous use in large-scale purification of proteins. Halide injection shows promise for reducing Hg emissions from coal-fired plants Initial testing of a low-cost technology aimed at reducing mercury emissions from coal-fired power generation plants has been completed by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI; Palo Alto, Calif.; edlinks. che.com/4517-537), Texas Genco LP (Houston, Tex; edlinks.che.com/4517-538), and URS Corp. (San Francisco, Calif.; edlinks. che.com/4517-539). The tests – the first fullscale application of the method — were conducted on an 890-MW boiler at Texas Genco’s Limestone Station in Jewett, Tex. Limestone’s existing electrostatic precipitator and wet scrubber (for particulate and SO2 control) captures virtually all of the soluble oxidized mercury, which ac- counts for 50–65% of the total mercury in the power plant’s fluegas. The new concept involves oxidizing elemental mercury with small amounts of a halogen compound — a liquid stream of calcium chloride or bromide — injected into the boiler, so that the mercury can be rendered soluble for capture in the SO2 scrubber. The preliminary results show that the halogen injection increases the mercury removal to around 75%, says URS. Work will continue through 2006 to determine if higher removal efficiencies can be achieved with increased halogen injection, and to study the corrosive effects that may be caused by the halogen additives. Making sabotage visible Lanxess AG (Leverkusen, Germany; edlinks.che.com/4517-540) has developed a luminescent indicator that, when used with a new surveillance system, can reliably detect small changes of ground surfaces from the air. The weather-resistant chemical is sprayed over the area beneath. When applied, the substance is invisible to the human eye. However, when exposed by radiation from a pulsed laser, the substance’s luminescence can be easily detected. Surveillance can be performed day or night from a helicopter, for example, using a fully automatic imaging software application. The self-teaching software compares, in real time, images that were made just after spraying with those taken after flyover. Ground changes the size of a postcard can be detected from a height of 100 meters, says the firm. The new system has been demonstrated to be technically feasible, and major fieldtesting is being planned. Potential applications include the surveillance along railway tracks and pipelines, around power and chemical plants, and at airports. 16 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 (Continued from p. 15) 1,4-butanediol plant. Developed specifically for the FF HSE (100 Mbits/s) technology, FFBs are key components of the open, integrated FF architecture for plantwide information integration. FFBs, which are application-specific, reside at the fieldbus user layer along with standard function blocks, and enable control strategies, such as supervisory data acquisition, batch control, programmable-logic-control sequencing, burner management, coordination-drive control and I/O interfacing, according to the Fieldbus Foundation (Austin, Tex.; edlinks.che.com/4517-552). A live demonstration of the combined HSE/FFB architecture is planned for May 19. Extremophiles Microorganisms that thrive in the hostile environment of a highlevel radioactive waste tank have been discovered by researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL; Aiken, S.C.; edlinks.che.com/4517-553). The bacterium, Kineococcus radiotolerans, is able to withstand radiation doses thousands of times the dose that is lethal to humans, as well as exposure to ultraviolet radiation and toxic chemicals, and prolonged desiccation. The microorganism is currently undergoing genome sequencing at the DOE Joint Genome Institute (Walnut Creek,Calif.). Learning about its self-repair mechanism may prove useful in such areas as environmental cleanup, space exploration and medicine, says SRNL. H2 sensors Air Products and Chemicals (Lehigh Valley, Penn.; edlinks. che.com/4517-554) and H2scan Corp. (Valencia, Calif.; edlinks.che.com/4517-555) are developing solid-state chemical sensors for uses in hydrogen plants, petroleum refineries and other process facilities. The aim is to produce sensors to operate inside process lines or vessels of Air Products’ production units, providing realtime H2-concentration data from the process gas flow. H2scan has commercialized H2 sensors based on proprietary technology of Sandia National Laboratories (Albuqerque, N.M.). TLFeBOOK A more efficient way to separate oil and water Asystem that achieves greater than 97% efficiency for separating oil and water has been developed by Nu-Corp International Technologies, Inc. (Byhalia, Miss.; edlinks.che.com/4517-541). The high efficiency of NuCorp’s XpaK system, measured by researchers at Mississippi State University’s Diagnostic Instrumentation and Analysis Laboratory (DIAL; Starkville; edlinks. che.com/4517-542), is significantly higher than the 75% efficiency typically achieved by conventional gravity separators, says the firm. XpaK takes advantage of the difference in densities of immiscible fluids. As such, it can be applied to any mixture of immiscible liquids of different buoyancy. In the separation process (flowsheet), solids are first screened and recovered in an induced-vortex, suspended-solids unit. The oil-water mix is then pumped to a high-rate separator. The high-rate separator is a curvilinear compound ?`ÕVi`ÊۜÀÌiÝ ÃÕëi?`i`Ê Ãœˆ`ÃÊÕ?ˆÌ i>ÌiÀ "ˆÉÜ>ÌiÀ Ãi«>À>̜À ˆ}…ÊÀ>ÌiÊ ÃVÀii? ?iÌ *Փ« /œÊœˆÊ Ã̜À>}iÊÌ>?Ž separator made up of XpaK internals. The mixture circulates through this column, from bottom to top, along a controlled flow pathway (multiple channels), under controlled temperature and pressure. The combination of the fluid’s kinetic energy, thermal gradient and nucleation causes the oil and water particles to separate — the oil moving towards the walls and the water towards the center, of the column. œ>Ì>̈œ? “œ?ˆÌœÀà ˆ?> Ü>ÌiÀÊ …>À vˆÌiÀ ˆÃV…>À}iÊÌœÊ Ü>ÌiÀÊÃ̜À>}iÊÌ>?Ž ÀiÅÊÜ>ÌiÀ 7>ÌiÀÊÃ̜À>}iÊÌ>?Ž ˆÀVՏ>̈œ? «Õ“« 7>ÌiÀÊ `ˆÃV…>À}iÊ «Õ“« Nu-Corp states that the capital cost for the system is about one-quarter that required for conventional equipment. The operating costs are also lower because no chemicals are required to enhance the separation; the return on investment can be weeks to months, depending on the application. A largescale demonstration is being planned, pending federal funding, at an oilfield site in Mississippi. adlinks.che.com/4517-16 TLFeBOOK CHEMENTATOR Using fullerenes to optimize surfaces for anti-wear applications Next month, a consortium of 31 companies and institutions from 13 countries will begin a three-year research project called Foremost: fullerene-based opportunities for robust engineering — making optimized surfaces for tribology. The project will be based on inorganic fullerenes, such as molybdenum bisulfate and bisulfate of wolframite. These new allotropic states of established solid lubricants have the property of form- ing nanospheres and layers (analogous to onion skins), which act as “nano ball bearings” between contact surfaces. The project is being coordinated by the Tekniker Technological Center (Eibar.Guipúzcoa, Spain; edlinks.che. com/4517-543), and includes companies such as Ion Bond, Ltd. (Consett, U.K.), Microcoat Ltd. (Dunstable, U.K.), Fuchs Petrolub, AG (Mannheim, Germany), Spolchemie (Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic), and Nanomaterials Ltd. (Rehovot, Israel). Three different product families will be developed: hard layers (where the fullerenes exhibit a greater thermal stability than the bisulfates in their natural state); polymeric layers and paints (where the addition of fullerenes will increase the wettability); and lubricants (where fullerene addition will reduce the coefficient of friction and increase the load-resistance capacity). A consortium bets on sonic fusion Impulse Devices Inc. (IDI; Grass Valley, Calif.; edlinks.che.com/4517-544) has commercialized a reactor for conducting research on acoustic inertial confinement fusion (AICF). An emerging field, AICF was discovered in 1989 by IDI’s chief scientist, Felipe Gaitan, and fusion reactions occurring in an AIFC reactor have been documented twice by multiinstitution teams (in Science [2002] and Physical Review E [2004]). The proprietary reactor is a stainless steel sphere filled with heavy water and has a “bubble” of deuterium in the center. Acoustic transducers focus sound waves (kilohertz) onto the core, causing the bubble to rapidly expand and collapse, and the cavitation leads to high localized temperatures. When the temperature is sufficiently high, the deuterium is fused into helium, releasing heat that could some day be used to drive a steam turbine. IDI’s reactor has a 1-ft diameter and costs $250,000. Last month, a consortium was established to further AICF research. The consortium is made up of researcher from IDI, Boston University, Purdue University, the University of Mississippi and the Washington Center for Industrial and Medical Ultrasound at Washington University. IDI believes the AICF technology can produce energy on a breakeven basis within five years, and produce enough net energy for making electricity within ten years. When I grow up, I want to be a teacher. When I grow up, I want to be President. When I grow up, I want to be an astronaut. 18 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 TLFeBOOK Ionic liquids show promise as an electrolyte in the next generation of Li-ion batteries Researchers of Kansai Center of National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST; Ikeda, Japan; edlinks.che.com/4517-545) have developed a new flame-resistant electrolyte, based on ionic liquids, for secondary lithium ion batteries that use metallic Li as the negative electrode. Although such batteries offer twice the energy density compared to conventional Li-ion batteries, they are prone to short circuiting due to the formation of dendrites after frequent charge-discharge cycles. As a result, the improved battery has eluded commercialization because of the safety risk associated with the the flammable solvents used in existing electrolytes. With the support of New Energy & Industrial Technology Development Organization (Kawasaki, Japan), AIST researchers developed New Electrolyte, which is composed of the a salt of asymmetric, cyclic, tertiary ammoniumimides, such as N-methyl-N-propylpiperidinium bis(trifluorometharsulfonyl) imide (picture). Unlike alternative ionic #( 3/#& . . #( 3/#& liquids that have been tried by other researchers, New Electrolyte is able to withstand the electromotive voltages involved without forming dendrites. And the material shows no ignition or weight New use for starch Atechnique for changing the water repellency of plastic films using coatings of steam-jet-cooked starch has been developed by scientists at the Agricultural Research Service (ARS; edlinks.com/4517-546) of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (Washington, D.C.). The technique was developed to improve plastic’s retention of water-based dyes and printing inks (used on food labels) as well as to reduce buildup of static reduction during flammability tests at 300°C, says AIST. A battery with electrodes made of lithium metal (negative) and LiCoO2 (positive), and New Electrolyte as its electrolyte, showed a charge-discharge efficiency of 97%. Intended to further the progress towards commercialization, the research is currently aimed at improving the purity and composition of New Electrolyte to increase the battery’s efficient. charge. Normally, chemical treatment is required to impart hydrophilic properties to commercial polymers, such as polyethylene; ARS believes that the starch-based method is a cheaper and safer alternative. The scientists have shown that the starch, in 1-µm-thick coatings, has the ability to hold water in place. The process has been patented and ARS is seeking a company to license the technology. When I grow up, I want to be Chairperson of the Federal Reserve. When I grow up, I want to build a new kind of High Shear Mixer that runs at 11,000 feet per minute and makes emulsions even better than a colloid mill. The remarkable new X-Series High Shear Mixer designed, built, sold, and supported by the extraordinary people at Ross. Call Ross to learn more about the world’s largest selection of High Shear Mixers. 800-243-ROSS www.mixers.com adlinks.che.com/4517-17 TLFeBOOK CHEMENTATOR Using waste heat to lower desalination costs Researchers at the University of Florida (Gainesville; edlinks.che. com/4517-547) have developed a process that can utilize waste heat from power plants as the main source of energy in desalination plants. The process, which is based on mass diffusion rather than heat to evaporate salt water, has been tested in a laboratory prototype unit that produces approximately 500 gal/d of fresh water. Calculations based on these tests show that the waste heat from a 100-MW power plant could generate 1.5 million gal/d of fresh water using the process, says James Klausner, professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering. The production cost per thousand gallons of water are estimated to be $2.50 for the process, compared to $10 for conventional distillation and $3 for reverse osmosis, he says. The desalination process uses a packed-bed, falling-film evaporator; but evaporation in it is driven by diffusion rather heat, says Klausner. Salt water is preheated (by the waste heat of a power plant) to 40 to 60°C and sprayed into the top of a diffusion tower. The column is packed with polypropylene packing [(HD Q-Pac) manufactured by Lantec Products, Inc. (Agoura Hills, Calif.; edlinks.che.com/4517-548)]. As the water falls down the column, a countercurrent flow of air evaporates the water. The air enters at 25 to 30°C and is gradually heated as it is driven through the diffusion tower. The satu- rated air is then blown to a direct-con- tact condenser to condense the vapor out of the air-vapor stream. This fea- ture allows for a compact and inexpen- sive condenser, he says. The fraction of feed water converted to fresh water is low (5 to 10%), so mineral- scale buildup is not a major problem, explains Klausner. Biological fouling is more of a concern, but this can be pre- vented by chlorination or ozonation, he says. “Should the packing become fouled, it is easily replaced at low cost since it is an inexpensive thermoplastic.” ■ LDPE Last month, ExxonMobil Chemical Technology Licensing LLC (Houston, Tex.; edlinks. che.com/4517-556) signed an agreement with Huntsman Petrochemical (UK) Ltd. whereby Huntsman will license ExxonMobil’s tubular process technology for Huntsman’s 400,000m.t./yr low-density-polyethylene (LDPE) plant, to be built in Teeside, England (CE, October, 2004, p. 14). The plant will be the world’s largest LDPE facility. New sweetener Palatinit GmbH (Mannheim, German; edlinks. che.com/4517-557) has launched a new artificial sweetener that is friendlier to teeth and is digested slower than sucrose, which leads to a low glycemic response in the human body. The new sweetener, a derivative of sucrose (6-O-␣-D-glucopyranosyl-D-fructofuranose, or isomaltulose), is a natural constituent of honey and sugar cane. The synthetic compound (tradernamed Palatinose) is made by a biotransformation of sucrose by enzymatic rearrangement of the glycosidic linkage from (1,2)-fructoside to (1,6)-fructoside using immobilized cells of Protaminbacter rubrum. After the reaction, the sweetener is purified by crystallization. Palatinose is being produced on a commercial scale at the Offstein, Germany, site of Südzucker AG (Mannheim), the parent company of Palatinit. ❏ adlinks.che.com/4517-18 20 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 TLFeBOOK Ionics Newsfront WRINGING MORE OUT OF WATER As water inexorably becomes scarcer, recycling it for process use makes more and more sense Reverse osmosis, long used for water desalting, is meeting new challenges in industrial-water recycling Overtaxed by population growth and increasing industrial demand, supplies of fresh water are becoming scarcer and more expensive in many parts of the world. At the same time, chemical process plants are being required to meet ever-stricter restrictions on the discharge of effluent. In response to these pressures, more and more companies are resorting to their waste-treatment plants as a source of fresh water. Municipal wastewater treatment plants are also growing in popularity as a source of feedwater in various parts of the world (see box, p. 22). The recycle of effluent from these plants is increasing at a rate of about 15%/year in the U.S. alone, according to the WaterReuse Assn. (Alexandria, Va.). The growth of recycling within industrial plants is more difficult to gauge, given the fragmented nature of the market, but equipment suppliers estimate the worldwide annual growth at around 15 to 20%. The problem of growing water scarcity is particularly acute in some areas that are rapidly adding large industrial plants, such as petrochemical and steel plants, says Colin Sabol, chief marketing officer for General Electric Infrastructure (Trevose, Pa.). ids, but ion exchange will reduce the One such region is northern China, solids content to a couple of ppm or he says, “where the price of water was less,” says Glen Sundstrom, industrial doubled about four months ago.” market manager for USFilter’s Mem- Waste treatment varies widely from cor, Microfloc and General Filter Prod- plant to plant, even for those that ucts operations (Rockford, Ill.). make similar products. However, the As an indication of the growing de- basic, common elements are typically mand, in the past five years USFilter the separation of valuable chemicals has installed more than a dozen largethat are recycled to the process and scale membrane systems in industrial of hazardous materials that cannot be plants to recycle wastewater, says discharged, followed by treatment of Sundstrom, versus only a handful in the resultant aqueous waste stream to meet discharge requirements. Methods used include mechanical filtration and separation, chemical and biological treatment, clarification, flotation, the previous decade. The company has also installed more than 40 smallerscale units for such businesses as printed circuit board manufacturers and metal-plating operations. “Given and evaporation. Adding membranes Since most plants already have many the current interest of customers, we could make another dozen large-scale installations in the next two years,” he says. Meanwhile, Koch Membrane of these elements in place, the further Systems, Inc. (Wilmington, Mass.) recleanup of water for recycling is most ports that the interest in UF and RO likely to involve the addition of micro- for new projects has increased dra- filtration (MF) or ultrafiltration (UF) matically. “Five years ago, about 10% membranes, followed by reverse osmo- of our pilot studies were for UF/RO,” sis (RO) at the end of the treatment says Fran Brady, a Koch process techprocess. Companies that require water nology leader. “Today, 90% of our pilot of higher purity, such as pharmaceuti- work is for the evaluation of UF/RO to cal and semiconductor operations, may recycle water and eliminate discharge add ion exchange. “On average, RO will to publicly owned treatment plants.” remove a good 90% of the dissolved sol- GE, a relative newcomer to water CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO2K1 Newsfront treatment, decided to enter the market about three years ago after an extensive study showed a huge potential for water-recycling. Since then, GE has made a number of acquisitions, including water-treatment company Betz Dearborn, and Osmonics, which makes spiral-wound membranes. By the end of this month, the company expects to complete the acquisition of Ionics, Inc. (Watertown, Mass.), which has expertise in the construction of very large desalination plants. Profiting from recycling Water-recycling can be a profitable endeavor, says GE’s Sabol. He cites the case of an Australian mining company that uses about 400 gal/min of water to recover metal from ore. “They were putting the wastewater into settling ponds and getting into trouble with the environmental authorities because heavy metals were leaching into the groundwater,” he says. MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER FEEDS THIRSTY PROCESS PLANTS For many chemical process plants, the most convenient source of water may be that which is recycled from a local sewage treatment plant. This water is often less expensive than the industrial plant’s own wastewater, says Glen Sundstrom, of USFilter. This is because municipal wastewater generally has a narrower range of pollutants than industrial wastewater, so it is less expensive to treat for re-use. One of the larger ventures involving the recycling of municipal wastewater for industrial use is operated by the West Basin Municipal Water District (Carson, Calif.). The district processes 30 million gal/d of wastewater at a plant in nearby El Segundo and sells approximately 20 million gal/d to three local petroleum refineries, operated by BP p.l.c., ChevronTexaco and ExxonMobil. The recycling plant is undergoing an expansion which will increase production to 45 million gal/d in 2006. West Basin buys secondary-treated wastewater from a Los Angeles wastewater-treatment facility and puts it through tertiary treatment (coagulation, flocculation, filtration and disinfection), followed by denitrification to remove ammonia, then microfiltration and reverse osmosis (RO). Some water destined for the refineries is subjected to doublepass RO. The refineries use the water for boiler feed, cooling, and other uses. West Basin also produces single-pass RO water for injection into aquifers to form a barrier against the intrusion of seawater from the nearby Pacific Ocean. Tertiary-treated water is used for landscape irrigation. GE installed a water-recycling system that included clarification, filtration, chemical treatment and nanofiltration that cost about $500,000, plus $75,000/year in operating costs. However, the project paid for itself in less than a year, says Sabol, because the recycling plant recovers about $500,000-worth of metals per year and saves some $200,000/year by avoiding the purchase of fresh water. The increased interest in membranebased separation has been prompted not just by a need to recycle water, but also by a significant decrease in the cost of membranes. The capital cost of membrane systems has dropped by around 50% since 1995 because of advances in manufacturing methods and higher-volume production, says Sundstrom. Brady adds that the cost of treating industrial wastewater, using a UF/RO combination, is now less than 2¢/gal, down from close to 4¢/gal five years ago. adlinks.chem.com/4517-19 22 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 Membrane improvements Improvements in membranes, to reduce energy consumption and obtain better rejection of dissolved solids, have been achieved in incremental steps over the years, says Lance Johnson, global manager for large membrane projects with Dow Chemical Co. Johnson is located in Minneapolis, Minn., where Dow subsidiary FilmTech Corp. makes spiral-wound membranes. “Our RO membranes can now operate below 100 psi for brackish water, compared to 100-150 psi about five years ago,” says Johnson. Dow’s latest innovation is a new method of interconnecting spiralwound membrane modules, which are installed in series in groups of six or eight inside a pressure vessel. Normally, the modules are connected by plastic pipe with O-rings, but the seals tend to get rolled or pinched, resulting in leaks, says Johnson. Dow’s TLFeBOOK You are invited to an automation event designed by your peers! ABB Automation World Conference & Exhibition April 20-22, 2005 The Westin Galleria and Oaks Houston, Texas Register early and save: www.abb.com/automationworld The “Must Attend” automation event of 2005, with three days of seminars, workshops, pre-event training and exhibits focused on Results-Driven Automation. With over 1000 expected attendees, ABB Automation World Conference and Exhibition will be the largest ever held in the Americas by ABB. Our Customer Advisory Board is guiding the creation of an event focused on the critical issues confronting today’s automation industry leaders - optimizing assets across the entire value chain, reducing risks and maximizing performance with measurable increases in productivity. You’ll receive real-world examples and information from industry peers and ABB’s automation experts that you can benefit from immediately. And, you’ll experience Results-Driven Automation for yourself through hands-on exhibits of the latest technologies from all areas of ABB’s automation technologies division and key partners such as Microsoft®. In addition to showcasing the latest automation products, solutions and services, sessions will also address cost-effective migration strategies for sustainable Results-Driven Automation. For additional information and on-line registration, visit www.abb.com/automationworld. Customers who register for the entire three day program before February 28th pay only $300 – a savings of $150 – and will be entered in a drawing to win a Microsoft X-Box! We look forward to meeting you in Houston! Sponsored by: Microsoft is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation adlinks.che.com/4517-20 TLFeBOOK Newsfront innovation, an interlocking end cap, is an axial compression seal that is said to eliminate this problem. Koch has a new spiral-wound membrane module that was developed to reduce costs. Called MegaMagnum, it measures 18 in. dia by 61 in. long, versus 8 by 40 in. for standard modules. The benefits, says the company, are lower installation time, lower labor cost and reduced seal and piping complexity; furthermore, the unit takes up only one-third to one-half the floorspace of conventional membranes. On installations made so far, the capital savings have been as much as 14%, compared with standard modules, says Brady. While RO has been used for decades to produce potable water from seawater and brackish water, and in municipal water-treatment plants (see CE, November 2004, pp. 27–30, for a recent update on desalination), treating plant waste streams presents some THE CLEANUP ARTISTS Dow Chemical — dow.com edlinks.che.com/4517-561 GE Infrastructure Water & Process Technologies — gewater.com edlinks.che.com/4517-562 Graver Technologies — special challenges. gravertech.com edlinks.che.com/4517-563 “Municipal waste- Ionics - ionics.com edlinks.che.com/4517-564 water is well under- Koch Membrane Systems — stood and doesn’t vary kochmembrane.com edlinks.che.com/4517-565 much,” says Sund- Lanxess AG — strom, “but for an in- lanxess.com edlinks.che.com/4517-566 dustrial waste stream, you need to run a pilot plant to prove that the system works and that the membranes will stand up.” Common materials used in membranes are polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and polyvinyli- Severn Trent Services — severn-trent.com edlinks.che.com/4517-567 Solucorp Industries — solucorpltd.com edlinks.che.com/4517-568 USFilter — usfilter.com edlinks.che.com/4517-569 West Basin MWD — westbasin.org edlinks.che.com/4517-570 World Environmental Technologies — ecoloclean.com edlinks.che.com/4517-571 dene fluoride (PVDF), which are popular choices for oily aromatic solvents that could dissolve waste streams; and polysulfone, which it.” In such cases, he says, probably the is not suitable for hydrocarbons. For best course is the removal of the sol- a fuller list of membrane materials, vents upstream from the membrane. see the table. RO membranes are GE has recently introduced some typically composites. Sundstrom notes new membranes that can tolerate that while PVDF is resistant to such pH conditions below 2 and above 12, oxidants as chlorine, “there are some whereas conventional membranes are limited to pH levels of around 4 and 10, says Sabol. Also new from GE are membranes that can operate up to 90°C, versus about 60°C for standard membranes. The higher temperature allows water to be recovered from hot condensate, so that it does not have to be reheated for boiler or process use, says Sabol. adlinks.che.com/4517-21 24 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 Other treatment methods Membranes aside, there are innovations in other treatment technologies that may improve a plant’s current waste-treatment system. Electrocoagulation, for instance, is a hoary process that is experiencing a revival. An electrocoagulation system is offered by World Environmental Technologies, Inc. (WET; Lafayette, La.), a subsidiary of Ecoloclean Industries, Inc. In the first stage of the unit, the waste stream is pumped between horizontal steel plates, which ionize the water, precipitating heavy metals and organics. The stream then passes between aluminum plates, where the contaminants are flocculated. Heavy solids sink to the bottom and lighter material is floated, leaving a waste stream that can be discharged to a sewer or recycled as washwater, says Michael Richardson, president of WET. In some cases the water may need no TLFeBOOK TABLE 1 – MEMBRANE FILTER TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS Material Polypropylene Abbr. PP Polyvinylidene fluoride PVDF Polyether sulfone & PES/PS polysulfone Polyacrylonitrile PAN Advantages Disadvantages Low cost No chlorine tolerance High pH range tolerance Expensive cleaning chemicals required High chlorine tolerance Cannot sustain pH > 10 Simple cleaning chemicals Chlorine tolerance Reasonable cost Brittle material requires support or flow inside to outside Low cost, typically used Less chemically resis- for UF membranes tant than PVDF. Cellulose acetate CA Low cost Narrow pH range Biologically active DISTILLATION AND EVAPORATION OF HEAT SENSITIVE MATERIALS ▲ MOLECULAR DISTILLATION ▲ CONCENTRATION ▲ FRACTIONATION ▲ EVAPORATION further treatment, and in others it may require sand or charcoal filtration. The process can treat 100 gal/min, versus 15–20 gal/min for conventional electrocoagulation, says Richardson, and the power requirement is 50 amps or less (220V, single- or 3-phase), compared with 300–400 amps for “most other processes.” He adds that the treatment cost is roughly one-third those of standard chemical and biological methods. WET has four trailer-mounted units, which so far have been used to treat petroleum wastes in oilfields. Richardson says the company is now working toward permanent installations in process plants. An electrocoagulation process that can treat up to 250 gal/min of wastewater is available from Solucorp Industries, Ltd. (Ft. Lauderdale, Fla.). Solucorp acquired the technology last year through the purchase of WITS, Inc. (Orlando, Fla.), which has tested the process on a variety of wastewaters over the past two years. The first commercial installation is being made in Keysville, Va., for removal of copper in the city’s wastewater treatment plant. The higher throughput was achieved by using vertical plates, like a plateand-frame filter, says William Seagraves, president of WITS. The vertical design is said to facilitate scaleup, as well as operation and maintenance. In tests, the process has removed well over 90% of both metal and organic contaminants, says Seagraves. He adds that the capital and operating costs are 20–40% lower than those for chemical treatment methods. Adsorbents for the removal of arsenic and other heavy metals from water are available from a number of companies. Under a new agreement with Lanxess AG (formerly the chemical arm of Bayer AG; Leverkusen, Ger- many), Severn Trent Services (Bir- mingham, England) offers an adsorp- tion system for removing metals from industrial wastewater that uses a fixed bed of Lanxess’s synthetic alpha iron hydroxide-oxide (Fe[OH]O) granules (CE, May 2002, p. 15). Graver Tech- nologies (Glasgow, Del.) has acquired HydroGlobe (Hoboken, N.J.), which has a process that uses titanium di- oxide granules to adsorb arsenic, lead and other heavy metals. However, the Lab - Pilot Plant - Production principal market for these processes is the removal of arsenic from drink- POPE WIPED-FILM STILLS ing water (in this connection, the U.S. standard for arsenic in drinking water will drop from 50 ppb to 10 ppb next January). Returning to the topic of membranes, USFilter offers a membrane bioreactor, the MemJet MBR Express, that combines activated sludge and microfiltration membranes in one package. The bioreactor is a tank that has an inlet for wastewater at the front end and hollow-fiber membranes at the outlet end. As the wastewater flows through the tank, air is injected ▲VERSATILE EQUIPMENT Turnkey production processing systems, pilot plants, and lab benchtop models all utilize Pope’s proven high vacuum, short residence time technology. Best method for difficult separations of materials high in BP, MP, MW, heat sensitivity, and/or viscosity. Fractionation possible with columnequipped systems. Many applications including: oils, pharmaceuticals, biomaterials, polymers, foods, flavors, extracts, cosmetics, waxes, silicones, high purity specialty chemicals. to promote biological activity. Air is ▲TOLL PROCESSING SERVICES also injected through the membranes, serving the dual purpose of preventing membrane fouling and adding oxygen to the process. Solids rejected by the membranes are recycled to the tank inlet. This allows the solids concentration to be maintained between 10,000 and 15,000 mg/L, versus 3,000–5,000 mg/ Minimize your development costs, risk, and time-to-market. Fast turnaround for custom manufacturing and processing of your materials – 1kg to truckload lots. Experienced staff and fully equipped new facility can handle the most difficult jobs and demanding requirements, including pharmaceutical and food materials. L for a conventional activated sludge process, says Sundstrom. The bacte- ria work much more efficiently at the higher solids concentration, he says. Most of the initial installations were in municipal treatment plants, but more recent installations have been in petroleum refineries and petrochemi- POPE SCIENTIFIC, INC. P.O. Box 80018 Saukville, WI 53080 U.S.A. Ph: 262-268-9300 / FAX: 262-268-9400 E-Mail: sales@popeinc.com cal and steel plants. ■ www.popeinc.com Gerald Parkinson adlinks.che.com/4517-22 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO2K5 Focus Swagelok FOCUS ON Steam Handling Hose station provides safety for point-of-use steam The Steamix VE Hose Station (photo, left) is recommended for use with steam/water heaters in various vessel filling, container top-off barrel washing and other applications. In the event of either a complete failure of the inlet cold water supply or a reduction in cold water pressure below 20 psi, Steamix VE will respond with a complete shutdown of outlet flow. In the event of a structural failure of the primary operating component (diaphragm), Steamix VE will fail safe to cold water. To prevent overtemperature selection by the user and the potential for overheated water and flash steam that is common with other types of hose stations, Steamix VE comes standard with a single temperature lockout feature. A maximum temperature limiting option is also available. Operating pressures of 20–150 psi and temperatures up to 180°F can be accommodated. — Armstrong Hot Water Group, Three Rivers, Mich. edlinks.che.com/4517-481 A high-temperature valve gives a warm welcome to steam The SC-2000 series of piston-operated check valves (photo, bottom right) is designed to withstand pressures of up to 500 psi with virtually no cracking pressure. They can handle steam, hot and cold liquids, inert gases of temperatures from –40 to 450°F. The simple, three-piece valve is constructed of 17-4-grade stainless steel. The valves, available in two- and three-way models, are clearly marked with a cast arrow on the body to indicate flow direction. In addition, the valves offer multiple port sizes ranging from 1/2 to 1 in. — Parker Hannifin Corp., Parker Fluid Control Division, Twinsburg, Ohio edlinks.che.com/4517-482 Armstrong Keep an eye on steam systems, and stop sweating the efficiency With this integrated test valve assembly (photo, top right), one can visually observe condensate removal and monitor steam trap performance wherever steam heating systems and steam traps are used. Monitoring steam trap performance can help reduce costs related to steam and energy losses, reduced heat capacity and equipment damage. The integrated test valve assembly comprises two of this manufacturer’s Series-63 general purpose ball valves, for isolation and testing, and a sturdy CF3M two-bolt universal mount that eases steam trap installation. Valves feature oval quarter-turn handles that are available in locking, non-locking and latch-locking models and a wide variety of end connections, including tube fitting, female NPT and female ISO-7/1. Choose from three test-valve vent locations: facing toward the steam trap, away from the steam trap, or downward. — Swagelok Co., Solon, Ohio edlinks.che.com/4517-483 A mobile system for cleaning in place The 300L portable cleaning-in-place (CIP) skid can be configured as a onetank or two-tank system. It is suitable for use on standalone equipment in a pilot plant, or in a small production 26 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 Parker Hannifin facility. Controls are either manual or automatic, depending on the level of cleaning requirement. The CIP tank is heated by injecting clean steam directly into the tank or by installing an in-line heat exchanger. Mobile systems offer an economic alternative to a centralized CIP system by eliminating the need for CIP supply and return piping. The manufacturer also offers standard and custom-designed systems, including single-use to drain, singleuse circulation and multi-use recovery designs. These systems not only reduce cleaning time and improve productivity, but they eliminate exposure to chemical and biological hazards. If further cGMP design and consulting services are required, the firm can assist with them, as well. Capabilities in this area include cleanability audits, debottlenecking, studies, systems design, equipment installation, commissioning, and validation. — Alfa Laval Biokinetics Inc., Philadelphia, Pa. edlinks.che.com/4517-484 This rigid PU foam insulation can take the heat With long-term exposure to temperatures of 150°C or more (as occurs in steam pipelines), conventional insulation made of rigid polyurethane (PU) foam materials can become brittle and lose their shape over time. A new high-temperature rigid foam has TLFeBOOK TLFeBOOK Focus Nicholson Steam Trap been developed to prevent cracking and thermal bridge formation in the insulation. The new product has the same thermal insulation as standard rigid PU foams, but can withstand long-term temperatures of up to 200°C (250°C for short periods). The heat-resistant PU is made by using excess isocyanate; when the foam hardens, the excess isocyanate molecules react to form a more densely cross-linked polyisocyanurate, says the firm. — Bayer MaterialScience, Leverkusen, Germany edlinks.che.com/4517-485 Kit helps this trap and others accommodate wider pressures Rugged, inexpensive and in-line repairable, Dura-Flo Inverted Bucket Steam Traps (photo) are made from durable/heavy walled cast iron bodies for use on steam lines, process equipment, laundry equipment, steam cookers, steam heated vats, pressing machinery, unit heaters, oil preheaters, converters, coils and rotating drums. The hardened stainless-steel valve and seat are said to provide maximum corrosion resistance, thereby extending the steam trap’s service life. The rugged stainless steel bucket is also designed to minimize the effects of water hammer. Another convenient feature of the Dura-Flo Inverted Bucket Steam Trap is its easy-to-install PCA (Pressure Change Assembly) kit, which allows the user to change the steam trap’s pressure to accommodate a wider range of applications. PCA kits can also be installed in other brands of inverted bucket steam traps. DuraFlo Inverted Bucket Steam Traps are available for pressures to 250 psig (17.2 barg) and temperatures to 450°F (232°C), in both horizontal and vertical configurations. — Nicholson Steam Trap, Walden, N.Y. edlinks.che.com/4517-486 Reduce pressure but not space For use where cost or space limitations are the primary concern, the D50 Direct-Acting Pressure Reducing Regulator is a rugged and economical choice for steam irons, autoclaves, laundry mangles, single radiators, steam tables, vulcanizers, steam, water or gas applications. Available in cast iron, bronze and stainless steel, the D50 Direct-Acting Pressure Reducing Valve is rated to 300 PSIG at 420°F and reduces pressures from 3 to 140 psi. Other notable features of the D50 Pressure Reducing Valve include: a spherical seating surface on a floating stainless steel disc for tight shutoff, five spring ranges, integral stainless steel strainer, and the availability of a Teflon disc for liquid and gas dead-end service. — Spence Engineering Company, Inc., Walden, N.Y. edlinks.che.com/4517-487 ON THE RICHTER SCALE, OUR EXPLOSION RATED A 0.0 At our facility, success is no accident. We were finalizing preparations for a corporate visit the next day. Then... we had an explosion. Our Fike Protection System sensed a rising pressure and stopped the pending disaster. No major damage, no injuries, no costly down-time. Our Fike Explosion Protection System not only saved us money and productivity, the inspection was a big success. WE KEEP EXPLOSIONS FROM ACHIEVING THEIR FULL POTENTIAL. COMPLETE EXPLOSION PROTECTION SOLUTIONS – TESTING, ISOLATION, VENTING AND SUPPRESSION C A L L F I K E TO DAY. 1 - 8 0 0 - 3 2 6 - F I K E ( 3 4 5 3 ) VISIT WWW.FIKE.COM MENTION CODE 4005 FOR FREE INFORMATION adlinks.che.com/4517-25 28 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 TLFeBOOK Clayton Industries organic acids, chlorine gas, calcium chloride and vinegar. In addition to corrosion resistance, Monel fittings are stronger than traditional steel and withstand extreme temperatures ranging from sub-zero to approximately 480°C (896°F). — Alemite Corp., Charlotte, N.C. edlinks.che.com/4517-489 Heater is a foe to bacteria breeding grounds Now available in both single- and double-wall versions, the Constantemp Heater destroys Legionella bacteria that can grow in hot water systems. Constantemp Steam Water Heaters Feed-Forward system heats water to 200°F and then blends fresh cold water Equip steam generators with a low-NOx package At 650 and 700 bhp, Models E-654 and E-704 are this vendor’s most highpowered steam generators (photo) to date. The units produce steam for high-capacity operations and offer the convenience of fast starts. The controlled circulation and counterflow heat exchanger technology brings fuel savings and size advantages, says the firm. When stringent air quality (single-digit NOx thresholds) is necessary, low-NOx burners are available. In this case, the burner system achieves emissions reduction through a combination of air/fuel mixing, ultra-lean flame design and low-flame residence. Units offer precise PLC control of pressure and automatic or unattended operation. Natural gas, propane, light oil, or combination of the three fuels is possible. — Clayton Industries, Inc., El Monte, Calif. edlinks.che.com/4517-488 A different alloy resists high temperatures and corrosives Monel grease fittings provide corrosion and temperature resistance, while maintaining a structural strength greater than traditional steel. These properties make the fittings ideal for use in severe operating conditions that are found in chemical process plants. Monel fittings are more corrosion resistant than 316 stainless when exposed to seawater, brackish water or high-temperature steam, and they are ideal for use in harsh chemical environments involving exposure to substances such as ultrapure water, BOOSTER •TRANSFER •CIRCULATION•INJECTION Say goodbye to pump maintenance. Say hello to a better solution...SPS™™. Our multi-stage centrifugal Surface Pumping System (SPS) provides a versatile, low-maintenance alternative to many split-case centrifugal, positive-displacement and verticalturbine pump applications. The SPS is a cost-effective solution for petroleum, mining, processing, water and other industries that require high-pressure movement of fluids. Proven benefits include: •Lower initial and whole-life cost •Short construction lead time •Increased reliability and runtime •Low noise and vibration levels •Remote monitoring and control •Worldwide support We’re committed to turning your downtime costs into runtime profits. For more information, call 1-405-670-1431. Or e-mail sps@woodgroup-esp.com. Dealer inquiries welcome. Wood Group ESP, Inc. The Smart Choice™ www.woodgroup-esp.com adlinks.che.com/4517-26 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO2K9 TLV Focus to achieve set temperature. Accuracy is ±3°F. Constantemp Heaters instantly deliver up to 120 gal/min and never fail hot, says the firm. Large storage tanks that can breed Legionella are easily replaced by the compact Constantemp, which fits through a standard doorway. Skid-mount systems are also available. Setup simply requires connection of the water inlet and outlet, steam inlet and condensate drain. — Leslie Controls, Inc., Tampa, Fla. edlinks.che.com/4517-490 Conquer superheat on highpressure process applications Designed specifically for the difficult tasks of draining condensate from high-pressure superheated steam mains and turbines, SS5NH (horizontal) and SS5VH (vertical) steam traps (photo) provide seal-tight shutoff and high reliability for extended performance. Constant water seal and novel rotational seating design eliminate concentrated valve wear to ensure long life, while a three-point seating ensures a steam-tight seal even under no-load superheat conditions. For resistance to water hammer, the SS5 Series boasts up to 1720 psig hydraulic shock rating and 0.004 diameters sphericity of the float. The SS5NH operates for pressures up to 659 psig, and is available in screwed, socket weld and flanged connections. — TLV Corp., Charlotte, N.C. edlinks.che.com/4517-491 adlinks.che.com/4517-27 30 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 Transmitter for measuring level in saturated steam applications The MT2000 uses guided-wave radar to make measurements, which means no moving parts and, therefore, virtually no maintenance. A waveguide directs the microwave pulses, eliminating the beam divergence problems common to conventional non-contact radar transmitters. The new C9P81 Waveguide is designed specifically for saturated steam applications, such as those found in industrial heat processes. The C9P81 Waveguide features an alumina ceramic insulator that allows accurate and reliable measurements up to 2,000 psi (138 bar) at 635˚F (335˚C). Unlike traditional contact devices, such as displacers, the C9P81 Waveguide does not depend on fluid density to make measurements. As a result, readings do not fluctuate with shifts in the specific gravity of the fluid and are not subject to variations in dielectric constants. This allows for significantly tighter control throughout the steam cycle, from boilers to feedwater heaters to de-aerators. The MT2000 level transmitter is offered in a large selection of probe materials, including 316 Stainless Steel, 304 stainless steel, hastelloy, monel, and TLFeBOOK Spirax Sarco Ronningen-Petter® Mechanically Cleaned Filtration System titanium. Accuracy is ±0.20 in. — Ktek, Prairieville, La. edlinks.che.com/4517-492 Steam trap station eases service and changeout The Universal Steam Trap Station (USTS) enables rapid and easy testing, isolation and changeout of steam traps. When combined with the steam trap technology of choice, the USTS comprises a complete steam main drip or tracer steam-trap station in a compact package. The USTS combines an inlet isolation/blowdown valve and an outlet isolation/test valve. The inlet valve, when set to the blowdown position, isolates the trap for service. The discharge valve, when set to test position, isolates the discharge side of the trap, blocking its outlet port, so that trap function can be checked and downstream depressurization can be done. The standard model has a maximum operating pressure rating of 300 psig (21 barg), with a maximum operating temperature rating of 421°F (198°C). The USTS-HP (high pressure) model is rated at 650 psig (45 barg) and 750°F (399°C). In addition to the manufacturer’s brand, the station will support third-party universal connector-type steam traps. — Spirax Sarco, Inc., Blythewood, S.C. edlinks.che.com/4517-493 Produce steam without local byproducts of combustion Series MBA Electric-Fired Steam Generators are designed to produce efficient steam up to 80 psig in a range from 3 to 20kW. They can be located virtually anywhere and are very quiet, says the vendor. No flue, fuel lines, tanks or onsite products of combustion are required. Each unit is compatible for use with standard tap water. Since the units are small in size, little heat is lost to the surrounding environ- ment. — Sussman-Automatic Corp., Long Island City, N.Y. edlinks.che.com/4517-494 ■ Rebekkah Marshall Cut downtime 75% with new drive technology ■ ROI in as little as 10 months ■ Low operating differential pressure ■ No dynamic seals that leak or need replacing ■ Simplified design utilizing 25 total parts ■ Up to 250 gpm throughput ■ Reduced product waste ■ Safer & more efficient operation Find out how at: www.rpaprocess.com/cea Free ROI Analysis A Dover Company Portage Michigan, USA 800-656-3344 adlinks.che.com/4517-28 adlinks.che.com/4517-29 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO3K1 People WHO’S WHO Woelfel Prevost Basell North America, Inc. (Elkton, Md.) appoints Randy Woelfel president of Polyolefins North America. Ian Dunn is named president of Polyolefins International, succeeding Woelfel. Patrick Prevost is elected president of the chemicals, plastics and performance products segments in North America for BASF (Florham Park, N.J.). Hans Engel is appointed president of the agricultural products and fine chemicals segments in North America. Black & Veatch Corp. (Overland Chaturvedi Park, Kan.) appoints Robert Wlodek sales and marketing manager of its Nuclear Group. Anis Sherali joins EarthSearch Communications (Atlanta, Ga.) as vice chairman and member of the board. Neil Gibbons is named operations director for Excelsyn’s (Durham, U.K.) engineering technology business. KGK Synergize, Inc. (London, Ont.) names Pratibha Chaturvedi senior scientist. Horgan Ciemniecki Louis Peters retires as executive director of The Polyurethane Foam Assn. (Knoxville, Tenn.). He is succeeded by Robert Luedeka. Jim Horgan is promoted to vicepresident of technology for Sartomer Co. (Exton, Pa.). Siemens Energy & Automation (Alpharetta, Ga.) names Edward Ciemniecki international account manager for Johnson & Johnson. ■ Joan Schweikart With any endeavor, it’s optimal to learn from the best. Although you can’t ruminate on relativity with Einstein or study the stars with Galileo, you can receive virtuoso environmental education on a host of compliance issues. Trinity Consultants’ expert instructors provide top-notch training for EH&S personnel, with intensive, hands-on courses at locations nationwide. Register for courses and view Trinity Consultants’ entire slate of 2005 training at trinityconsultants.com/training.asp. Enter discount code CHEMENG for a 10% discount when you register online. trinityconsultants.com (800) 613-4473 ISO 9001:2000 Certified For specialized training on air quality issues, attend one of our upcoming courses: Fundamentals of Air Dispersion Modeling AERMOD/ISC Modeling Computer Lab Intro to Air Quality Regulations March 14-15 March 16-17 March 16-17 April 19-20 Orlando, FL Orlando, FL Houston, TX Kansas City, KS NSR Reform Workshop March 23 April 27 Philadelphia, PA Twin Cities, MN Emissions Quantification for Industry CAA Workshop for Power Generation CAA Workshop for Refining MACT Compliance for the Process Industries April 5 April 5 April 6-7 April 13-14 Houston, TX Pittsburgh, PA Houston, TX Newark, NJ adlinks.che.com/4517-30 32 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 TLFeBOOK COST ENGINEERING CAPITAL AND ANNUAL COST ESCALATION Using the CE Plant Cost Index (CEPCI)*: Current cost = Cost in past period ⋅ CEPCI for current time period CEPCI for past time period * Other appropriate cost indexes can be used with this formula as well CEPCI data can now be downloaded two weeks before your print copy arrives While regular CE subscribers will retain access to the latest numbers in our printed version (or pdf files on www.che.com/ei), upgraded CEPCI users will have the ability to access, query and print both current and historical databases. NOTE: A special introductory rate of $295/yr — a $200 savings off of the regular $495 price — is available for a limited time only. This service is entirely separate from subscriptions to CE’s print and online magazines, and will provide realtime access to the following: • All annual data archives (1947 to present) • Monthly data archives (1970 to present) • Electronic notification of monthly updates as soon as they are available • A selection of helpful cost-estimation articles that have run in past issues of CE To sign up for this service, visit www.che.com/pindex NOMENCLATURE A Uniform amount per interest period C Cost d Combined interest rate per interest period Dj Depreciation in year j F Future worth, value or amount f General inflation rate per interest period G Uniform gradient amount per interest period i Interest rate per interest period n Number of compounding periods; or the expected life of an asset P Present worth, value or amount Sn Expected salvage value in year n Using time-value relationships Factor Name Converts Symbol Single Payment Compound Amount P to F (F/P, i%, n) Single Payment Present Worth Uniform Series Sinking Fund F to P (P/F, i%, n) F to A (A/F, i%, n) Formula (1+ i)n (1+ i)−n i (1+ i)n −1 DEPRECIATION Straight line Dj = C − Sn n Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS) Dj = (ACRS factor) · C Capital Recovery P to A (A/P, i%, n) i ⋅ (1+ i)n (1+ i)n −1 ACRS factors Recovery period, years ( ) Uniform Series Compound Amount A to F (F/A, i%, n) 1+ i n −1 3 Uniform Series Present Worth Uniform Gradient Present Worth Uniform Gradient Future Worth i Year ( ) A to P (P/A, i%, n) 1+ i n −1 1 33.3 i ⋅ (1+ i)n 2 44.5 ( ( ) ) ( ) G to P (P/G, i%, n) 1+ i n −1 i2 ⋅ 1+ i n − i⋅ n 1+ i n 3 14.8 4 7.4 G to F (F/G, i%, n) ( ) 1+ in i2 −1 − n i 5 6 Uniform Gradient Uniform Series G to A (A/G, i%, n) 1− i (1+ n i )n − 1 7 8 INFLATION 9 10 Combined interest rate d = i + f + (i · f) 11 5 7 10 Recovery rate, % 20.0 14.3 10.0 32.0 19.2 11.5 24.5 17.5 12.5 18.0 14.4 11.5 11.5 8.9 9.2 5.8 8.9 7.4 8.9 6.6 4.5 6.6 6.5 6.5 3.3 TLFeBOOK BUILD YOUR ENGINEERING LIBRARY % BOOK SERIES Edited by Suzanne Shelley and the Editors of Chemical Engineering Written by engineers for engineers, each book contains practical, authoritative engineering articles from the pages of Chemical Engineering BOOK TITLES: Liquid-Liquid and Gas-Liquid Separation (250 pages) Includes articles on distillation, adsorption, absorption, stripping, liquid-liquid extraction, membrane separation, ion exchange, crystallization, evaporation, and more. Fluid Handling (350 pages) Includes articles on specifying, operating and maintaining pumps, valves, and flowmeters, coping with troublesome fluids and flow problems, pipeline issues, modeling, and more Environmental Management: Air-Pollution Control (300 pages) Includes articles on technologies for managing gaseous emissions, NOx, SOx, particulate matter, and other airborne industrial pollutants, design tips for thermal and catalytic oxidation systems, emissions monitoring, relevant data and calculation methods, and more Plant and Personnel Safety (385 pages) Includes articles on safe handling and storage of hazardous substances, avoiding dust explosions, spill response, managing overpressure and thermal runaways, fire protection, process safety management, safety instrumentation, worker training, and more Environmental Management: Wastewater and Groundwater Treatment (360 pages) Includes articles on chemical, biological and physical treatment systems, and emissions-monitoring techniques, for industrial wastewater and groundwater; technologies include membrane systems, reverse osmosis, filtration, carbon-based adsorption, evaporation, aerobic and anaerobic digestion, and more Plant Operation and Maintenance — Part 1: Chemical Process Equipment (380 pages) Includes articles on operating and maintaining high-temperature equipment (boilers, heaters, heat exchangers, incinerators, heaters and more), rotating equipment (compressors, turbines and motors), pumps and valves, baghouses and electrostatic precipitators; coping with pressure buildup; avoiding leakage (gaskets, couplings and leak detection) and more Plant Operation and Maintenance — Part 2: Procedures and Best Practices (390 pages) Includes articles that share engineering and managerial recommendations for operating and maintaining plantwide systems and plant utilities (steam electricity, cooling towers), coping with corrosion and fouling, maximizing fire safety, protecting workers, managing tanks and monitoring levels, managing pipeline issues, and more Managing Bulk Solids (215 pages) Includes articles on storage, weighing and feeding of bulk solids, particle characterization, separation and classification, pneumatic conveying, drying, managing dust emissions and electrostatic hazards, and more Mixers and Mixing (220 pages) Includes articles on specifying impeller, rotor-stator and static mixers, troubleshooting mixer systems, coping with problem fluids, modeling using computational fluid dynamics and simulation, blending solids, and more Gas-Solid and Liquid-Solid Separation (160 pages) Includes articles on particle separation using filters, cyclones, hydrocyclones, centrifuges, baghouses and electrostatic precipitators, drying systems and more Thermal Management (250 pages) Includes articles on heat exchangers and heat-transfer fluids, heaters and desuperheaters, drying, condensation, chilling, evaporation, quenching, temperature measurement, avoiding runaway reactions, and more Pristine Processing (150 pages) Includes articles on selecting and operating high-purity equipment, managing high-purity gases and chemicals, designing and operating cleanrooms, maintaining clean-in-place and steam-in-place systems, and more Available in 3 different formats to suit your needs: 1 2 Perfect-bound soft cover book 3 Spiral-bound soft cover book CD-ROM Go online to www.che.com to preview the Table of Contents of each book, and to place your order Sponsorships Available! To learn how your company can SPONSOR one or more of these books, please contact Helene Hicks, at phone: 212-621-4958 or hhicks@chemweek.com. The cost is $2,750 to sponsor a single title; $2,500 each when you sponsor more than one title. Ask about our Group Sales & Bulk Volume Discounts! TLFeBOOK ITT Richter Chemie-Technik Show Preview The 22nd International Pump Users Symposium will return this year (February 28–March 3) to Houston’s George R. Brown Convention Center. Organized by pump users for pump users, the conference and exposition provides a forum for users concerned with maintenance, performance, troubleshooting, operation and procurement. The technical sessions provide an opportunity for attendees to select those lectures, tutorials, and case studies that best meet their personal and professional needs and interests. For attendees who are registered for short courses, Monday, February 28th will offer topics ranging from vibration in centrifugal pumps, to designing, operating and troubleshoooting mechanical seals. The main educational program will commence at 8:00 a.m. on Tuesday, however, with a welcoming address by Paul Allaire, Mac Wade Professor of Engineering at the University of Virginia, entitled “Implantable Human Artificial Heart Pumps— Design, Development, and Testing.” Tuesday and Wednesday will be divided into two morning sessions and an afternoon session, each offering the choice of sitting in on a lecture, tutorial or discussion group. New this year, Thursday will be devoted solely to case studies. No other technical sessions will be offered on Thursday, and case studies will not be presented on any other day. If it is pump-related products you seek, more than 150 exhibitors will be showcasing their newest innovations. Discussed below are some highlights of the products and services that will be on display. For more information about this event, visit turbolab.tamu. edu/pumpshow/pump.html. Falk Corp. Install these spacer coupling guards in no time essary. On the wetted side the RG-5 is metal-free. Silicon carbide sealing Orange Peel Type PCG guards (photo, elements make it resistant against bottom) offer safety compliance, sim- chemicals and wear and tear. It’s seal- plified installation, and reduced main- ing chamber is permanently flushed, tenance wherever spacer couplings thanks to a specifically designed hous- are needed. They are an affordable ing back plate with wide open distance solution for new and existing installa- around the sealing surface. Solids cantions of pumps, fans, blowers and gear not clog, says the manufacturer. Booth drives. Type PCG Guards are simply 837 — ITT Richter Chemie-Technik trimmed to length and attached to the GmbH, Kempen, Germany foundation with four fasteners. An optional end cap is supplied to enclose the extension opening when required. Metal powder-coated leg kits are supplied to meet the base to centerline edlinks.che.com/4517-332 Lubricated bearing design lets seals operate in the cool This manufacturer of American Pe- requirement; and stainless steel leg troleum Institute (API) radial-split kits are available as an option. Type pumps has introduced an oil-lubri- PCG Guards feature symmetrical cated “thrust-pod” bearing design halves, injection molded from mainte- that offers benefits for vertical inline nance free polyethylene, and joined by pumps. Problems with over-greasa hinge assembly at the top. One size ing or under-greasing the bearing accommodates many ANSI/ ISO pump are eliminated, and oil level is easily configurations. They are available confirmed with a visual inspection of from stock in ANSI Safety Orange and the constant-level oiler. Oil lubrication ISO Safety Yellow for indoor or out- also allows the use of larger thrust door use. Booth 341 & 343 — The Falk bearings that have higher thrust ca- Corp., Milwaukee, Wisc. edlinks.che.com/4517-331 A seal of approval for solids-containing fluids pacities at all rotational speeds. When combined with a product lubricated radial bearing, the thrust pod carries all pump generated radial and axial loads. Higher thrust capacity of The RG-5 stationary mechanical seal the thrust-pod allows the mechanical (photo, top) has been specially devel- seals to operate near suction pressure oped for operation with corrosion-re- and at lower temperatures, reducing sistant plastic-lined process pumps seal-pressure-velocity values substanwhen a secure sealing of solid-con- tially. In many applications, the need taining or crystallizing liquids is nec- for magnetic drives or wet-stator mo- CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2T0L05FeB3O4DO-K1 Junty Industries Show Preview tors is eliminated. The manufacturer will design the thrust-pod configuration to suit the seal, which in high-pressure applications, should be the first consideration. Booth 216 & 218 — CPC/Pumps International, Mississauga, Ont. edlinks.che.com/4517-333 Emerson Power Transmission A better grade of composite for seals nozzles and more This supplier of sealing products now offers various kinds of wear parts made in Sintered Pure Silicon Carbide (SSIC; photo, bottom right). SSIC is a better grade of material than SiC RB (reaction-bonded Silicon Carbide), says the vendor, and can be made into seal faces, bushes, thrust washers, nozzles, and so on. SSIC is a very hard material and resists wear and corrosive attack from nearly all chemicals, making it widely applicable for use in pumps and mechanical seals. Booth 724 — Junty Industries, Ltd., Beijing, China edlinks.che.com/4517-334 Elastomer couplings ease stress on the pump Kop-Flex Odyssey elastomer resilient couplings (photo, top left) feature a patented design that provides a dual flex-point diaphragm, which provides greater parallel offset capacity and reduced reaction forces on the equipment, and is thereby particularly effective for pump applications. The design bonds urethane to steel hubs and a composite center. These high-performance materials minimize corrosion to critical surfaces, thereby reducing both maintenance and life cycle costs. Other product features include: reduced center weight for better balance; less load on bearings and seals; and high strength self-locking fasteners designed to minimize over tightening. Booth 440–442 — Emerson Power Transmission, Baltimore, Md. edlinks.che.com/4517-335 Shaft alignment that is easy to see The Rotalign Ultra shaft-coupling alignment system features a large scratchproof backlit color screen (photo, top middle) and backlit keyboard that accommodates many working condi- Magnatex Pumps tions, day or night, indoors or out. Intuitive navigation guides the user through any alignment task from simple pump/ motor through complex machine trains of up to 14 machines. The system uses patented single beam technology with a 5-axis, 2-plane sensor and built-in electronic position detector. Accurate data for shimming and horizontal correction are obtained from the patented continuous “SWEEP” measure mode, even at very small angle rotation. The ULTRA offers USB and Bluetooth connectivity for interface with printers and PCs, allowing alignment reports to be produced in full color. Life-like machine graphics are used for both screen display and printed reports. The lightweight computer is powered by a rechargeable battery and is water, shock and dustproof to IP65. Booth 315 & 317 — Ludeca, Inc. edlinks.che.com/4517-336 Tap these dry-run bearings to extend service life This manufacturer is now offering as standard new silicon carbide dry-run (SiC-D) bearings (photo, top right) in its MP, MMP, MPT and MPH pumps to enhance performance and extend run life. A proprietary treatment strengthens the surface of the bearings and provides a significantly reduced friction coefficient for superior performance during dry-run startups. The dry-run bearings diminish the harmful effect of heat shock that other 34D-2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 Ludeca magnetic-drive pumps experience during dry-run conditions, preventing bearing breaks and cracks that impact operation and increase maintenance costs. Booth 718 — Magnatex Pumps, Inc., Houston, Tex. edlinks.che.com/4517-337 Lubricant is well-suited for delivery by mist Specifically for use in centralized air-mist lubrication systems, Synmist high-film-strength, synthetic lubricant is designed to readily atomize to eliminate large, unwanted, wet oil droplets that can accumulate in mist systems. It also exhibits good reclassification properties, which ensure that oil is delivered onto the bearing surface where it is needed. Synmist rapidly and completely demulsifies from water and displaces moisture from bearing surfaces. Its performance advantages come from a novel blend of synthetic oils and the manufacturer’s proprietary Synerlec additive technology, which forms a tenacious, ionic, protective film on bearing surfaces. Synmist is wax free; so, it does not cause a wax buildup nor does it congeal at low temperatures. Overall, the lubricant reduces bearing vibrations, remains fluid at low temperatures, and is compatible with most synthetic and all mineral air-mist oils. Good oxidation stability and synthetic solvency keep bearings free of harmful oil de- TLFeBOOK 650 psig 925 psig 1500 psig 1150 psig 650 psig adlinks.che.com/4517-38 TLFeBOOK Show Preview posits. Booth 822–824 — Royal Purple Ltd., Porter, Tex. edlinks.che.com/4517-338 Sealless pumps keep track of cooling fluid temperatures Most modern sealless pumps offer a method to monitor their bearings and motor temperatures. Monitoring fluid temperatures should also be considered. Thus, this manufacturer has redesigned its CAM Line of multistage canned motor pumps (photo) to separate the flow required for motor cooling from the thrust balance flow. The CAM line is designed to handle flows up to 1,000 gal/min and can produce over 3,000 ft of head. System pressures of to 15,000 psi can be accommodated. The pumps can be manufactured in many different alloys for pumping toxic, hard to seal, expensive fluids. Booth 333 & 335 — Hermetic Pumps Inc., Humble, Tex. edlinks.che.com/4517-339 Electric actuator boasts strength and durability The Limitorque SMB multi-turn electric actuator’s strength and durability make it useful for a wide range of applications, including oil and gas wells, platforms and pipelines; petroleum refining; hydrocarbon and chemical processing; power generation; water treatment and distribution; and steam distribution. Now available with a 10year standard warranty on commercial applications, the Limitorque SMB Hermetic Pumps features an solid construction and cast-iron housings. The SMB actuator series covers a broad scope of capabilities, producing torque ranging from 15 ft-lb (20 Nm) to 60,000 ft-lb (81,349 Nm), and handling stem thrusts up to 500,000 lb. (2,224 kN), thereby making valve control easier wherever the application demands maximum durability. Booth 401 — Flowserve Flow Control, Irving, Tex. edlinks.che.com/4517-340 ■ Rebekkah Marshall LOAD MONITOR TELLS YOU • Mixture Viscosity • Tool Condition • Loss of Load • Pump or Fan Flow • Optimum Feed Rate • Beginning or End of Process UNIVERSAL POWER CELL VERSATILE • Works on both Fixed and Variable Frequency Power • Even does DC and Single Phase YOU CAN ADJUST FULL SCALE TO MATCH YOUR MOTOR • Maximum sensitivity from small motors clear up to 150 HP TWO ANALOG OUTPUTS • 4-20 milliamps • 0-10 volts THREE BALANCED HALL EFFECT SENSORS SIMPLE INSTALLATION • No current transformers • No voltage transformers CCAALLLL NNOOWW FFOORR YYOOUURR FFRREEEE 3300--DDAAYY TTRRIIAALL 888-600-3247 WWW.LOADCONTROLS.COM adlinks.che.com/4517-39 34D-4 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 TLFeBOOK FEBRUARY Double the length of your AS-i with this extension plug The AS-i (actuator-sensor interface) Extension Plug and the new AS-i Extension Plug Plus (photo, top left) double the cable length of an AS-i segment from 100 to 200 meters. Both components are suitable for any network topologies such as line, tree, or star, and only one plug per segment is required. To monitor the AS-Interface voltage and the supply voltage of all connected stations, the Extension Plug is equipped with an integrated undervoltage detection circuit. A flashing green LED indicates when the voltage level has fallen below the minimum requirement, and a message is sent to the higher-level controller. — Siemens Automation & Drives, Nuremberg, Germany edlinks.che.com/4517-341 Siemens Automation & Drives Pump Engineering Solartron Mobrey This smart positioner features FDT/DTM technology Besides the possibility to integrate field devices via electronic device description (EDD) into engineering and control systems, the FDT/DTM technology makes a new interface available, which is independent of themanufacturer. The intelligent positioner of the second generation Arcapro Type 827A (photo, bottom left) now offers this possibility as an alternative to the DDL (device description language) concept. The DTM (device type manager), which is developed on the basis of the FDT specification 1.2, facilitates the use of enhanced diagnostics for preventive maintenance. — ARCA-Regler GmbH, Tönisvorst, Germany edlinks.che.com/4517-342 This machine accurately fills vials with powder The AFG 3000 Series of powder filling machines (photo, bottom right) has been developed to cover midrange capacities: the 3010 fills up to 160 vials per minute and the 3020, ARCA-Regler Robert Bosch with two dosing aggregates, fills 320 uids such as solvents, strong acids or per minute. Powders are vacuum con- alkalis. The pocket-sized, air-driven veyed into the dosing chamber. Sterile pump has only three moving parts. A compressed air (or inert gas) is then venturi is used to create a vacuum be- used to transport the powder into the hind the diaphragm. At the end of the vial. Powder in the supply chamber is suction stroke, a control rod, attached constantly in motion by means of an to the diaphragm, blocks the outlet on agitator. A dosing accuracy of up to the venturi and diverts air onto the 1.5% is achieved, which is a factor of back of the diaphragm creating the two above the accuracy of other dos- discharge stroke. This “stress-free-di- ing systems, claims the firm. The systems control software is programmed according to GAMP guidelines (good automated manufacturing practice) and the requirements of U.S. 21 CFR Part 11. — Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart, Germany edlinks.che.com/4517-343 Pocket-sized pumps for corrosive liquids The Pageboy SFD15 self-priming aphragm” design improves the pump reliability compared to conventional diaphragm designs, where the return stroke is a mechanical process, says the firm. The pump has a maximum output of 3 L/min and operates at a maximum pressure of 6 bars. — Pump Engineering Ltd., Littlehampton, U.K. edlinks.che.com/4517-344 A flowmeter with ATEX approval for hazardous areas diaphragm pump (photo, top right) is The Rotameter 250 Series flowmeter suitable for pumping aggressive liq- (photo, middle right) is now available CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARYT2L00F5eB3O4OI-K1 New Products Phoenix Contact HIMA Vega Grieshaber with a built-in, explosion-proof 4–20mA transmitter, making it possible to measure the flow of gases and liquids in a range of hazardous applications. The metal-tube design is ideal for use in corrosive and aggressive environments, such as those in petroleum refineries, chemical processing plants, and nuclear power plants. The ATEX EExd-approved unit provides reliable indication of flow, within 2% of full scale reading, in applications at high temperature (150°C) and pressures (50 bars). — Solartron Mobrey, Slough, U.K. edlinks.che.com/4517-345 Collect data via phone or internet with this device Vegascan 693 (photo, left) is a new data-collection system for recording and transmitting measured values of up to 15 HART sensors. The device also supplies power to the connected sensors. The unit is available with either an RS 232 interface (for connection to an analog, ISDN or GSM modem with serial port), or an Ethernet connection, which enables control and SCADA systems to retrieve measured data via the Modbus TCP/IP protocol. Both versions enable easy visualization of the measured values as a chart using a web browser. — Vega Grieshaber KG, Schiltach, Germany edlinks.che.com/4517-346 A controller for both simple and complex heating tasks The Tempcon 300 controller system (photo, middle top) can be adapted to a wide range of applications, ranging from simple ones, such as controlling baking ovens, to very complex tasks, such as controlling multi-zone heating systems in plastic-injection or blowmolding machines. The system uses the firm’s modular Inline automation system, which allows users to configure compact controller units for 4–30 control zones. The required components, including bus couplers, control units and I/O modules, are simply plugged together. The bus coupler modules are available for operating the modular temperature and process controllers on industrial fieldbus systems, including Interbus, Ethernet, Profibus, CANopen, DeviceNet and Modbus. — Phoenix Contact, Blomberg, Germany edlinks.che.com/4517-347 adlinks.che.com/4517-40 34I-2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 Handle HART signals without feedback using this separator The SIL3-certified Ex separator H6200 (photo, far right) converts an analog Ex input signal into two independent, standard analog output signals, while simultaneously extracting transmitted HART signals. The firm’s safety technology guarantees the lack of feedback from the HART signal on the analog signal. Also available now is the HART multiplexer H6210, which collects the data from up to eight H6200 units and forwards it to a HART server via the integrated RS 485 interface. Thanks TLFeBOOK The safe choice. Process safety – reliable, flexible, easy Visit us at the Hanover Fair/Interkama+ April 11–15, 2005 Hall 9, Booth A 72 E20001-F340-P210-X-7600 When it comes to your processes, depend on total safety – with a Safety Instrumented System (SIS) that does not allow for weak spots. SIMATIC® Safety Integrated is our comprehensive portfolio of safe, fault-tolerant and high-availability products for the process industries that leaves nothing to be desired. It’s reliable: it reduces risks without stopping production. It’s flexible: just look at the architecture and the bus systems – with integrated or separate safety technology. And it’s easy: it connects up to any control system and is simple to configure, for instance with the Safety Matrix cause & effects tool. Because it is part of Totally Integrated Automation, our certified SIS is already a harmoniously integrated component of the SIMATIC PCS 7 process control system. Get more information by faxing 00 800/74 62 84 27, Infoservice AD/Z 1109E www.siemens.com/process-safety TLFeBOOK Christ Water Technology New Products Land Instruments to the safety related HART filter function, this device claims to be the world’s first multiplexer that is able to guarantee zero feedback from the HART diagnostic data on the reparameterization of HART transmitters. — HIMA Paul Hildebrandt GmbH + Co. KG, Brühl, Germany edlinks.che.com/4517-348 Keep an eye on IR thermometer data With the introduction of the Cyclops DL-1000 Data Logging System (photo, right), the task of downloading and analyzing temperature measurements of reheat and reformer tube furnaces has been simplified. The system combines the company’s own software with a Pocket PC on which readings can be stored and then transferred to a PC (as a .txt file) for display and analysis. A choice of options is offered at the start of each measurement logging session, including thermometer type, temperature units and text identifiers. A timed acquisition function can be set to record temperature data at predetermined intervals from 1 to 3,600 seconds. — Land Instruments International, Dronfield, England edlinks.che.com/4517-349 Plants for ultrapure water, and more The newest version of this firm’s water-purification plant, Osmotron 2 (photo, left), has a new external design and offers a more flexible configuration compared to its predecessor. In addition, the Osmotron 2 is fully automated, which means there are no analog meters or indicators such as for pressure and flowrate. Instead, such measured values are connected directly to the controller and can be displayed on the monitor. The water plant can easily be extended from, for example, a system for making purified water, to one that produces water for injection in accordance with USP 26, or one that produces highly purified water in accordance with EP 5. 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GPMMPXFECZNJOVUFTGPSRVFTUJPOTBOEEJTDVTTJPO CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e0B05OO3K5 Cover Story Alarm Management Process and system alarms are intended to assure efficient process-plant operations and even, occasionally, save lives. But in too many plants, the alarm system has paradoxically evolved into a nuisance. A five-step procedure can put a degenerate alarm system aright #/.42/, -ONITORTHEALARM SYSTEMFORADDITIONAL IMPROVEMENTAND MAINTAINITINAN hENGINEEREDvSTATE )-02/6% -AKEIMPROVE MENTSTOYOUR ALARMSYSTEM $%&).% %STABLISH ASITE SPECIFIC ALARM PHILOSOPHY -%!352% $OAN!LARM 0ERFORMANCE !SSESSMENT Peter Jofriet Honeywell How many alarms are currently configured in the system or process you manage or that you are designing? 25? 100? 1,000? How many of those alarms would go off in the first minute of a process disruption or system shutdown? Would your facility’s operators know which alarms to address first? Now consider the finding that a typical operator can effectively deal with only one alarm per minute during an upset. In light of this fact-of-life, it becomes easier to recognize the value of alarm management in strengthening operational efficiency and averting costly disruptions and incidents, often referred to as “abnormal situations.” It has been estimated that the inability to diagnose and control abnormal situations has an economic impact of at least $10 billion annually in the U.S. petrochemical industry alone. A recent related example involving the electric utility industry comes from the Eastern North America blackout that occurred in August 2003. Authorities are still reviewing records of the thousands of alarms and events that occurred up and down the power grid to determine exactly what caused the outage. But whatever the cause, it is already clear that non-functioning alarm systems, alarm floods and ineffective operator responses exacerbated the situation. On the one hand, high alarm rates can promote a culture of “operate by alarm,” whereby the alarm system drives the operators and, therefore, the plant. But there is also a converse risk: when alarms proliferate, their collective value as a tool for diagnosing and preventing problems declines. The alarms become a nuisance to operators, who eventually will ignore or turn them off if the chattering (repeated activation) continues. During normal operation, it is not uncommon to have one alarm activated every one to two minutes, with some alarms chattering throughout a shift. When incidents occur, there can easily be 30 to 50 alarms per minute – 600 alarms per minute in extreme cases. Why so many alarms? Alarms have proliferated as manufacturing processes and equipment have become more complex, demanding and dangerous. In recent years, the evolution of controls technology pushed the process industries from single, independent mechanical components toward an interdependent, command-and-control electronic system. In a modern distributed control system (DCS), for example, almost every configured point can have multiple alarms. PID loops can have up to 15—20 alarms per point, including loop integrity alarms, high-range alarms, setpoint-deviation alarms and 36 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 !.!,9:% )DENTIFYAREASFOR IMPROVEMENTBY COMPARINGDATATO INDUSTRYBENCHMARKS FIGURE 1. The Six Sigma sequence lends itself well to improving a process plant’s alarm system many more. It is also possible to have a large number of overall-system alarms – so many that these alarms are sometimes more intrusive than individual-process alarms, and arguably of lesser value to operators. Over time, it has become easier and easier to set alarms for system and process changes; and, simply put, engineering and plant management have gotten carried away. The philosophies of “more is better” and “alarms are free” have guided their decisions. One specific cause of the problem is “alarm creep” in which the easiest solution to a problem is often to add another alarm, with the result over time that the overall effectiveness of the alarm system suffers [1]. It has been noted [2] that alarm systems have grown from “a few hundred alarms to many hundreds or thousands of alarms on most plants during the past 20 years.” Among the consequences are redundant alarms, chattering alarms, standing alarms (alarms that have been continuously in the acti- TLFeBOOK Phase Alarm Improvement Activity Define Document your alarm philosophy. Measure Conduct an alarm system performance assessment and current practices assessment. Analyze Improve Control Compare the data to industry benchmarks, review best practices and identify areas for improvement. Make improvements to the alarm system through a combination of repairing nuisance alarms, rationalization and application of advanced alarm processing techniques. Monitor the system to identify the need for additional improvements and implement the tools/procedures to maintain the alarm system in its “engineered” state. • Under what circumstances should an alarm be used? • How is an alarm priority set? • How are critical alarms handled? • How should individual alarms be configured? • Who is responsible for our alarm system? • What are the criteria to suppress an vated state for some period of time), As a preliminary, consider having and the inability of a given alarm set- the newly formed team participate alarm, and what tools or procedures will be used to do so? ting to track the state of the plant. in a workshop or presentation on the • How will nuisance alarms be con- These problems become all the more alarm improvement process, led by an trolled? bothersome in light of today’s wide- internal or third-party expert. This • How will ongoing performance of spread tendency to push petroleum ensures that all members understand the alarming system be monitored refineries and other process plants the importance of alarm management and improved? to their maximum capacity. For such and of the improvement process that • How should changes to that system plants, it is particularly desirable that will be employed. be controlled? alarm systems not only perform well but also communicate succinctly and effectively with the plant operators. A well-managed alarm system can provide operators with the appropri- Since the possibilities for alarm improvements come, in part, from software solutions, it is prudent to have your solutions provider take part in this preparatory step. In addition to It is likely that in answering these questions, the team will grapple with some basic philosophical and operational issues. But once the philosophy has been completed, it will lay the ate information in a timely manner providing insight into industrywide groundwork for more-consistent and that is crucial to identifying the cause best practices, he or she can introduce more-relevant alarming practices. of an abnormal situation and restoring the plant to normal operation. But such a system is possible only through consistent and proper management. For a given process plant, the first step is to fix the existing alarm system. How to do so is the main focus of the software available for alarm analysis, rationalization and management, and educate the team about optimal use of these tools. Phase 1: Define – Establish your desired alarm philosophy Although these ideas are captured in an official site document, that document should not be regarded as immutable. A correctly prepared alarm philosophy is a living document that needs to be refreshed, updated and changed as processes, technologies this article. HARNESS SIX SIGMA A suitable framework for improving alarm effectiveness can be found in An alarm philosophy is a written document that governs how a given alarm system is designed and implemented. It defines how alarms will be managed at a particular site or within an orga- and business objectives evolve. Phase 2: Measure – Assess the performance of the existing alarm system the well-known Design for Six Sigma nization, and provides structure and Once the team reaches consensus on philosophy (see, for instance, Putting consistency in configuring alarms. It an alarm philosophy, it’s time to mea- Six Sigma Processes to Work, CE, will not only provide long-term guid- sure how well the alarm system alNovember 2003, pp. 62–67): define, ance but, for the present, also consti- ready in place is functioning. During measure, analyze, improve and con- tute the basis for the rest of the alarm this measurement phase, perceived trol. These five phases, known in Six improvement program. problems are identified that will form Sigma circles as the “DMAIC process,” The philosophy must be written in the basis for Phases 3 and 4, the anal- can be applied to alarm improvement such a way that paths of action are ysis and improvement phases. as shown in Table 1. consistent and clear, and so that the The sequence of activities during Alarm improvement projects are alarming process can be implemented this measurement phase is as follows: most successful when operators and with reasonable effort and resources • Assemble the alarm-activation data engineers work together. Start by both now and in the future. The memforming a cross-functional team that bers of the alarm improvement team, will be the steering committee for the as well as anyone else whose job will typically available in the plant’s DCS (distributed control system) alarm and event journals. Such data project. Sites that have successfully be impacted by this philosophy, must implemented alarm improvement buy into it. assembly is often is a challenge, because many sites do not have DCS- projects typically have included rep- To determine the content of the resentatives from the operations, pro- alarm philosophy, the cross-functional based diagnostic tools that can delve into the data files of the process cess engineering, and safety depart- team must collectively answer the folments, as well as control engineering lowing questions: and instrumentation personnel, on • What is the purpose of our alarm servers and retrieve necessary event information. However, some vendors of control systems or of software do their teams. system? offer tools and services that make CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO3K7 FCeoavteurreStRoerpyort this task less arduous. Spreadsheet or database programs may be used as rudimentary substitutes. • Applying diagnostic tools to the assembled data, calculate alarmperformance statistics on dynamic alarm activity or events, and summarize the alarm configuration in order to uncover any anomalies. These statistics might include the rate of alarm activations, the patterns (if any) in these activations, and the priority of the activations • Review the history of plant upsets, and annotate any significant events for future reference • Gather design and implementation documents, procedure and practice documents, and any HAZOP information available. This documentation will become invaluable in the next phases of this process. Phase 3: Analyze – Alarm Performance Benchmarks The tasks associated with Phase 2 and Phase 3 are not mutually exclusive. The data produced and tabulated in Phase 2 only become useful when analyzed. Analysis, done in Phase 3, consists of comparing the calculated, plant-relevant statistics against industry standards or benchmarks. The goal is to identify problems with the way the plant is utilizing its alarm system. In this step, the problems are quantified and the seriousness of issues is realized. In general, industry benchmarks define how many alarms operators should be able to handle and whether or not they can discern the important ones. One recommended document for this purpose is Reference [3], the Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Assn. (EEMUA; London, U.K.) Publication No. 191, “Alarm Systems - A Guide to Design, Management and Procurement,” published in 1999. Also useful for making the benchmark comparisons is a tool, available via the author’s employer, known as an alarm performance benchmark report (Figure 2). The analysis in this phase supports the reengineering that is subsequently done in Phase 4, because it gives a baseline of performance and configuration to which the post-rationalization system can be compared. In addition, Phase 3 becomes the basis for removing nuisance alarms, and it can aid decisionmaking regarding advanced alarming techniques. With all this said, perhaps the most compelling reason to make a thorough analysis of your alarm performance data is to gain some insight into what level of performance may be possible for your site. There are many ways to analyze the data collected in Phase 2, and space limitations do not allow a discussion here. But whichever is employed, three aspects of performance are critical and should certainly be analyzed. The first is the frequency of alarm activations on a daily basis. Calculating the average number of alarms that are received per day provides the engineer with a good indication of system usability during normal operation. According to the aforementioned EEMUA Publication 191, a manageable condition consists of 288 alarms or less during any 24-hour period – any more and the situation will be too much for the operator to handle. While analyzing the frequency of activations, consider also the priority distribution of the alarms that are being received. For example, if several vessels are becoming overheated at the same time, does that overheating pose more of a risk in some of the vessels than in others? A correctly established alarm priority can play a big role in helping the operator to distinguish one alarm from another. The second must-do step consists of employing that same sort of frequency analysis and priority-distribution analysis to determine how an alarm system performs during an upsetcondition. Consider, for instance, the first 10 minutes after an upset occurs. How many alarms are received during that first period, and how many during subsequent 10-minute ones? What percentage of them are HIGHpriority or LOW-priority alarms? The EEMUA guideline states that having fewer than 10 alarms during the first 10 minutes “should be manageable”— whereas 20 to 100 alarms during the first 10 minutes is “hard to cope with.” Arguably, alarm flooding during an upset-condition is perhaps the most common problem exhibited by poorly 38 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 designed alarm systems. This type of analysis will indicate whether that problem exists on your site. Finally, the third piece of analysis that is considered a “must do” is the bad-actor analysis. Are all of your alarm activations and problems coming from two or three alarm points, for example, or do you instead have a lot of activations from a lot of different points? A bad-actor analysis will help to identify points that are contributing to the “background noise level” of your alarm system. It will also help to identify process areas that are particularly poor in terms of the way that alarms have been configured. Beyond these three critical areas of analysis, further investigation may be required to determine such things as the following: • What is the risk of an operator miss- ing an alarm? • What is the relative contribution of each problem area to the overall alarm activity? • What are the possible causes of peaks in alarm activity? Possibilities include nuisance alarms, or alarms that chatter, or alarms that activate in unison with a group of others (consequential alarms). One can quickly attribute such conditions to a lack of priority management, or to poor configuration of deadbands and trip points. Phase 4: Improve – Rationalize the existing alarms In this improvement phase, every configured alarm is scrutinized. Advanced techniques that may reduce overall alarm activations are identified and implemented. For example, one can identify equipment groups that could incur multiple alarm activations while the equipment is shut down. Wherever that situation exists, mode-based alarming could be implemented to disable or suppress alarms while the equipment is not operating. Otherwise, these alarms will annoy the operator or, worse, cause her or him to miss a more serious situation. This process of alarm rationalization is the core activity of many alarm management projects. It reduces the number of configured alarms significantly, while at the same time ensuring that the remaining alarm param- TLFeBOOK Honeywell process started with 154 configured alarms and ended up with dramatically fewer. Here is a summary of the rationalization activities that achieved that re- sult: • 62 alarms were deleted • 59 documentation corrections were made • 52 alarms were changed to alerts • 50 configuration corrections were made • 26 priorities were changed • 19 alarms were consolidated into 7 alarms • 7 alerts were consolidated into 1 • 3 alarm settings were changed • 2 new alarms were added • 1 new alert was added The results of rationalization are not always so spectacular, but even small improvements FIGURE 2. An alarm performance benchmark report can provide a detailed picture of how one given plant’s alarm system measures up against the norms can have a big impact in terms of operator effectiveness. As part of the improvement phase, consideration must also be given to eters are correctly specified. The net result is fewer activations. Success in alarm rationalization hinges on keeping four basic aims in mind: tion to a plant condition that requires timely assessment and action”. Accordingly “each alarm or alert should alert, inform and guide,” and should be useful, relevant and have a pre- matters such as final sign-off or approval of the rationalization results, as well as to bi-directional cut-over plans and scheduling (bi-directional in the sense that if a defect in the ra- • Once the alarm system has been rationalized, the alarms and alerts will meet production management’s requirements for process performance and economics • Each alarm and alert will be justified and properly designed defined response. The rationalization process encom- passes four basic steps: 1.Identify existing alarms that should be changed to “alerts.” 2.Identify existing alarms that need to be eliminated. tionalization scheme is not detected until after the switchover has been made, the system can nevertheless be returned to its previous state while the defect is remedied). Validation and testing of the new configuration may also be required. • Causes of alarms and alerts will be identified. • Consequences of not acting will be determined. As pointed out in the EEMUA Publication 191, the rationalized alarms and alerts should be designed or engi- 3.Determine the appropriate priorities and trip points for alarm response. 4.Identify hazards for which there are no appropriate alarms. These simple steps can result in dramatic reductions in alarms. For example, one chemical-process unit Software is available to support rationalization that can greatly reduce the work to actually implement the results. These tools permanently record how the rationalized alarm system was implemented, and can tie the alarms to the equipment’s basic neered to “direct the operator’s atten- that underwent the scrutiny of this constraints. Also, software and con- CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO3K9 Cover Story trol-system-based tools that support mode-based or state-based alarming can reduce the work required. Do not forget to evaluate operator graphics during this rationalization phase. How alarms appear on the operator’s console plays a big part in the operator’s ability to recognize an alarm, determine the priority of the alarm, evaluate the reason for the alarm and decide how to respond. Consider how the alarm information is presented to the operator. Pay attention to such things as color usage, indicator shape and size, and the general ability of the operator to navigate alarm-correction screens. One can go a long way toward improving operational effectiveness by taking the operator interface into account. Phase 5: Control – Maintain the improved alarm system Without control, the improvements made through rationalization will not be sustained or further improved. In this phase of the alarm improvement process, the implemented redesigned alarm system is monitored for improvement in the subsequent months or years of its operation. The results of the alarm improvement process are tested and maintained, and areas for additional improvements might be explored. Follow-up studies, upset investigation and alarm system enforcement will help ensure that the alarm system not only remains in its newly engineered state, but continues to promote maximum operator effectiveness. To be successful, alarm management must be more than a one-time activity. The improvement process for a plant or facility has to be accompanied with a change in thinking about how alarms are perceived. Three basic activities can help promote and maintain good alarm management through the alarm system’s life: Conduct follow-up studies: Continue to gather new alarm performance statistics to track dynamic alarm activity, unit upsets and maintenance costs. Compare these findings to your earlier assessments of the alarm system’s performance and measure them against the established design guidelines and best practice benchmarks. Make additional changes as necessary, on an ongoing basis. Investigate upsets: Establish a “high-water mark” for alarm-activation frequency, above which you will declare the alarm system to be in “flooded” condition. When alarm floods occur, evaluate the actions of operators and the state of the process – what was going on, what happened, what didn’t happen that should have? Establish a daily reporting and/or monthly benchmarking regime to analyze dynamic data, to provide additional clues to needed improvements for both normal oper- adlinks.che.com/4517-31 40 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 adlinks.che.com/4517-32 TLFeBOOK ating and process-upset conditions. Enforce the alarm system phi- losophy: At regular intervals use a “master alarm database” to compare the engineered alarms (that is, alarms whose presence can be justified, on the basis of sound engineering and of operating experience) to those actually configured in the DCS database at a given moment in time. Making this comparison once a week or during each shift ensures that unauthorized changes are not being made to alarms. You can use this approach to monitor and document any disabled or inhibited alarms, and thus empower operators to defend and enforce the alarm system philosophy. The beginning of each shift also is a good time to compare alarms to the master database. This choice allows outgoing operators to discuss issues with incoming ones, and ensures that the incoming operators know the state of the alarm system. In this connection, keep in mind that some software systems can be configured to automatically reset alarms based on a particular process variable or change of state. In a nutshell In summary, experience tells us that many process-plant alarm systems perform poorly. But by following a systematic approach to alarm management and changing the way you References 1.Campbell Brown, Donald, Alarm Management: A Problem Worth Taking Seriously, Control, August 1999. 2. Androw, Peter, Alarm Performance Improvement During Abnormal Situations, in “Hazards XV: The Process, Its Safety, and the Environment: Getting It Right,” Institution of Chemical Engineers, Manchester, U.K., April 2000. 3. “Alarm Systems - A Guide to Design, Management and Procurement,” Publication No. 191, Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Assn. (EEMUA), London, U.K.,1999. think about alarms, you can turn your alarm system back into a tool that is relevant, useful and trusted by your operators. ■ Edited by Nicholas P. Chopey Author Peter Jofriet, P.E., is HPI marketing manager, Americas, with Honeywell (1280 Kemper Meadow Drive, Concinnati, OH 45240; Phone: 513 674-4653; email: Peter. Jofriet@honeywell.com). He joined that company three and a half years ago as an industry consultant. He has prepared more than 17 papers and presentations about process control, and has worked on alarm management improvement programs with Syncrude, PetroCanada, Encana, Oxy Chem, Glaxo, Irving Oil, Devon Gas and Weyerhaeuser. He started his career as a Production Supervisor in Northern Ontario. As a control engineer in the Niagara region, he worked on supervisory control, advanced control, performance monitoring issues and systems operator console upgrade projects. He also worked in a corporate technology group as a senior process engineer implementing MPC control on various applications. He holds a master’s degree in process control, in the area of model-based fault diagnosis, expert systems and neural networks from Queen’s University, Kingston, Ont. Use your mouse... But don’t take us literally. Answers and solutions to your dry particle size reduction and classification questions. It’s all online at Sturtevant, Inc. www.sturtevantinc.com/ce 800-992-0209 adlinks.che.com/4517-33 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO4K1 Feature Report DESIGN GUIDE FOR DUST COLLECTORS Consider these factors GETTING THE TERMINOLOGY STRAIGHT when selecting, The term dust collector is very broad. Listed below are some of specific types of dust collectors that are widely used today: specifying and operating dust collectors to remove unwanted particulate matter from gaseous process and exhaust streams Amrit T. Agarwal Pneumatic Conveying Consulting Services Dust collectors are used widely in most manufacturing operations to remove dust and other airborne particulate matter from process gases before releasing them to the atmosphere or to downstream processes. Several different types of dust collectors are widely in use today, and they vary in terms of nomenclature, design and operation (for more, see the box at right). For instance, in pneumatic conveying systems, dust collectors are routinely used for removing dust from the conveying gas before the gas is released to the atmosphere. They are also often installed at the end of the conveying line on bins and silos, as bin vent filters or as filter-receivers. When used with systems that convey fine solid particles, dust collectors not only recover these fine particles from the conveying gas, but they also clean the gas before it is discharged to the atmosphere or recycled. In most dust-collection devices, the filtration mechanism combines both depth filtration and surface or Bin vent filters. Bin vent filters are installed on the tops of bins and silos to capture entrained particulates before the conveying gas or other process gases are vented to the atmosphere or to other downstream process equipment. Filter-receivers. Dust collectors are called filter-receivers when, in addition to filtering the incoming gas, they also receive the incoming solids, and then, by gravity, they feed or pneumatically convey these solids to the downstream process. Filter-receivers have three components: a dust filter, a hopper, and a feeding device, such as a rotary valve, which also functions as an isolation device (also called an airlock) to prevent gases from blowing back into the upstream process through the bottom of the receiver or vice-versa (For more on rotary valves used in pneumatic conveying systems, watch for an article by this author, which is scheduled to appear in the Solids Processing Dept. in CE’s March issue). Filter-receivers are generally installed on the tops of bins or silos to receive the conveying gas and solids when isolation of the pneumatic conveying system from the bin or silo is required. They are also used in combination-type vacuum-pressure pneumatic conveying systems, or as a dropout station when two pneumatic conveying systems are used in series. In this case, the solids enter the filter-receiver and are then reconveyed to a bin or silo. Dust collectors. As stated above, dust collector is a broad, generic term. However, this term, in many cases, refers specifically to a filter that is used for dust collection service, such as in a central dust collection system. These dust collectors are not installed on the tops of bins or silos or in pneumatic conveying systems, but operate at a remote location so that the dust can ultimately be discharged by gravity into a disposable container. Guard filters. Guard filters refer to devices that are installed in the vent line from the bin vent filters, filter-receivers, or dust collectors. These often serve as a backup to the main or primary filters, to provide additional protection in preventing dust emissions from escaping to the atmosphere or reaching any downstream processes. Unless two guard filters are installed in parallel, these filters require process shutdown to periodically clean or replace the dirty filter elements. Cartridge filters. Cartridge filters typically are disposable devices. In recent years how- ever, the design of these filters has improved so that many of today’s cartridge filter designs can be cleaned online and reused. ❏ surface-cake filtration. Typically, the dust-laden air enters the dust collector and is forced to enter the filtering medium. Only the gas passes through, while any entrained particulate matter is trapped inside the filter pores or is deposited as a cake on the surface of the filter medium. The dust cake buildup is periodically removed from the filter surface by any of several methods; or, in the case of guard or cartridge filters, the dirty filter me- dium is generally thrown away and replaced by a clean, pre-packaged filter medium. Types of dust collectors Aside from the guard filter, dust collectors are generally classified by the type of cleaning method that is used to remove the particulate matter from the surface of the filter medium. Typical classifications and their brief descriptions are given below: 42 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 TLFeBOOK #LEAN GASOUT &ILTERING MODE #LEANING MODE 4UBESHEET $IRTYGAS INLETOPEN 3LIDEGATE CLOSED $USTBEING REMOVED $IRTYGAS INLETCLOSED 3LIDEGATE OPEN tions effectively loosen and dislodge the dust cake that has formed on the external surface of the filter medium. Presently, pulse-jet dust collectors are used almost universally by all types of manufacturing plants, because of their excellent cleaning efficiency. Design aspects FIGURE 1. A typical design of a dust collector is shown here. As shown, the operation of the filters alternates between filtering mode and cleaning mode 6ALVE CLOSED #LEAN GASOUT "ASE DISTENDED DUETO INFLATION #LEANING GAS 4ENSIONADJUSTMENT 6ALVE CLOSED 3EWN INRINGS The basic design of a pulse-jet dust collector is shown in Figure 3. These dust collectors have the following main mechanical components and characteristics: 1. The filter elements are installed inside the main body or housing. The vessel generally has a conical or pyramidal hopper bottom that is sloped at an angle of at least 60 deg from the horizontal. &ILTERING MODE $IRTY GAS INLET OPEN #LEANING MODE $IRTY GASTO OTHER PRODUCTS FOR CLEANING $UST OUT FIGURE 2. The typical design for a reverse airflow filter is shown here Shaker type filters. With this design, strongly toward the more effective 2. Filter elements are generally of cylindrical or rectangular panel type construction, although the cylindrical type is more commonly used. These elements have internal wire cages to help them retain their shape. Pleated filter elements without a wire cage are also used sometimes in special applications. 3. A horizontal tube sheet supports the filter elements and separates the clean side of the dust collector the filter medium is shaken manually pulse-jet design. from the dirty side. or mechanically to remove the dust Reverse airflow filters. With these 4. A clean-air plenum chamber is lo- particles (Figure 1). These dust collec- filters, the flow of the incoming gas cated above the tube sheet, with an tors are generally not as efficient for is periodically reversed from inside of outlet to discharge the clean gas. dust removal as the pulse-jet type de- the filter element to its outside, and 5. A system is provided to supply scribed below. They tend to plug more the same gas flows across the filter elquickly because the shaking action ements (Figure 2). Just as with shaker high-pressure gas to the dust collector to clean the filter elements. does not release the dust cake com- type filters, reverse airflow filters are pletely or easily. Consequently, the use also not as efficient as the pulse-jet fil- This system has high-pressure gas manifolds located inside the plenum of shaker-type dust collectors tends ters, because they do not generate sufto be reserved for certain unique or ficiently high gas velocities throughspecial applications. One example is out the filter element to fully dislodge chamber above each row of filter elements These manifolds (also called blow pipes) are connected to the gas a process where the blow-back gas the filter cake. used in a pulse-jet type of duct collec- Pulse-jet filters. With this design, a supply source via shutoff valves. Nozzles or orifices in the blow pipes, tor creates excessive pressure in the upstream or downstream process, or where high pressure blow-back gas is unavailable. When using shaker type filters, the separate source of high-pressure gas is used to generate short-duration pulses of very high velocities inside the filter medium, propagating from the filter’s top to its bottom. High-pressure, high- located directly above and concentric with those elements, are provided to control the gas flow into each of the filter elements. Each filter element also has a venturi at its flow of incoming air must be stopped velocity jets of gas are created using a or diverted to another filter during the venturi that is installed at the inlet of inlet, located exactly below the hole or nozzle in the blow pipe above. cleaning cycle. As shown in Figure 1, these filters operate batchwise in their filtering and cleaning modes. These days, very few dust collector vendors offer this type of dust collector, as the each filter element. These high-energy pulses result in fast, momentary inflation of the filter medium, and flow of the incoming gas from the inside to the outside of the filter element, A control system with timers for pulse duration and time interval between the pulses controls the flow and duration of the cleaning gas to each filter element or to a bank of market preference has turned more across its entire length. These two ac- filter elements. A typical design of CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO4K3 Feature Report #LEANAIREXHAUST #LEANAIRPLENUM 2EVERSE AIRVALVING 4UBESHEET this blow-back system is shown in Figure 4. Figure 5 shows how the blow-pipes are located above each row of filter elements. 11. The nozzle for the incoming gas is located below the bottom of the filter bags to avoid direct impingement of the in- !0 GAGE 6ENTURI &ILTERBAG ANDCAGE 6. The body of the dust collector is generally cylindrical for high pressures and square or rectangular for low pressures. Low pressures are typically in the range of one psig or coming gas-solid mixture on the bags. Generally, the inlet nozzle is located at least one foot below the bottom of the bags. $IRTYAIR HOUSING less. 12. The inlet nozzle is also pro- 7. The size of the dust collectors can vided with an internal baffle $IRTYAIR INLET vary from very small to very large. Small sizes may be only a few square feet of filter surface area. Very large units may have more than 50,000 square feet of filter area. 8. The standard lengths of the filter elements, often called filter bags, are 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 ft. The longer the element, the lower is the cleaning efficiency because of the energy decay in the pressure pulse from the top to the bottom of the filter ele- or impingement plate to deflect the solid particles toward the bottom of the vessel and to dispense them across the entire cross-section of the dust collector. Properly designed inlet nozzles can reduce dust loading on the bags by reducing the solids velocity and thus helping some initial settling of the solids. Tangential inlet noz- (OPPER 2OTARYVALVE -ATERIALDISCHARGE FIGURE 3. Pulse-jet dust collectors have emerged as a favored design among CPI plant operators. The basic design elements are shown here ment. As a result, based on performance data, the optimal bag length is generally limited from 6 to 8 ft. 9. The outside diameter of the bags may vary from 2 in. up to 8 in. Smaller-diameter bags are more easily and more thoroughly cleaned zles are seldom used because they may result in smearing of the solids on the internal surface of the vessel, especially when handling soft or sticky materials, and because the high tangential velocity could cause erosion of the dust collector walls. — through an orifice located directly and concentrically above the bag and then through a venturi. The short durations last just a fraction of a second. The venturi converts the high pressure of the incoming air into high discharge velocity. Depending upon the than larger-diameter bags because of the higher-pressure pulse that is generated in them Because of this, the maximum diameter of the bags is generally limited to 5 or 6 13. Complete baghouse assemblies without a shell or body are also sometimes used for direct mounting on the top of a storage bin or other vessel. In this case, the bags extend pressure, this velocity can be as high as sonic velocity. The sudden flow of this high- velocity gas creates a shock wave that causes the bag to swell over most of its entire length. As the bag in. Thus, for most applications, the preferred size of the bags is 5 or 6 in. into the “free space” that exists be- swells, the dust cake that is deposited tween the top of the bin and the on the surface of the bag becomes loos- diameter and 6 or 8 ft length. 10. Pulse-jet dust collectors have two options for removal of the bags. The bags can be removed from the bottom of the tube sheet, or from the top of the tube sheet through its plenum chamber. The top removal method is highest level of solids in the bin. Operating principles During operation, the dust-laden air enters the dust collector from the bottom, flows vertically upward into the filter area, and then flows across and ened, falls off the filter medium surface, and drops to the bottom of the dust collector. A side effect of the venturi is generation of a slight vacuum at its inlet resulting in induced airflow (see Figure 4) into the filter bags. If the dust preferred if the dust collector is in- into the bags. The entrained particu- collector is vented to the atmosphere, stalled on the top of very tall bins lates in the dirty stream enter the filter atmospheric air will be induced into or silos or if bags could fall into process equipment. Top-removal type construction tends to be about 10% more expensive overall than the bottom-removal type. Top-removal type element or are deposited on the outside surface of the bags. The cleaned air passes through the bags, flows upward inside the bag, and then flows into the plenum chamber through the venturi the venturi and flow into the bags. The amount of this induced airflow depends upon the pulse air pressure and can be significant. This induced flow can have adverse effect on bag clean- bags should have easily removable of the bags. From the plenum chamber, ing if this flow sucks in humid air that or rotatable top head, with flexible it then flows to the atmosphere or to could condense on the internal surface connections and removable spool pieces in all piping. For very large dust collectors, walk-in type plenum chambers can also be used to eliminate the top-head removal equip- other process equipment. As mentioned above, dust that is deposited on the bags is removed by a pulsed-air system. The pulses of air are injected into the bag — over of the bags. The bags are typically cleaned one by one, or bank by bank. This allows continuous operation of the dust collector because when one bag or one ment and its mechanism. short durations and intermittently bank of bags is being cleaned, the 44 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 TLFeBOOK 0RIMARYAIR 3ECONDARY AIR 3OLENOIDVALVE 6ENTURI %XHAUSTPORT 3OLENOIDENCLOSURE the dust collector, divided by the cross sectional area of the dust collector’s shell, minus the total cross sectional area of the filter elements as viewed from the bottom: &ILTERCAGE &ILTERBAG !IRMANIFOLD Air or gas flow (acfm) ⎡Cross - sectional area of the dust collector⎤ ⎢ ⎢ shell(ft 2 ) - Total cross - sectional area of ⎥ ⎥ ⎣⎢the bags as viewed from the bottom (ft2) ⎦⎥ FIGURE 4. This figures shows the design of a typical blow-back system, which is used to introduce pulsed air into the system to periodically dislodge the collected particulate matter other bags or banks are still in operation. Therefore, pulse-jet dust collectors operate continuously. To improve cleaning efficiency of the filter bags, set the pulse-air cleaning sequence for each row of bags so that it does not clean the adjacent rows of bags but alternates between the rows located away from each other as shown in Figure 6. The consumption of air required to clean the bags can be obtained from the dust collector vendors. Design issues to consider Basic design considerations for dust collectors are described below: Gas-to-cloth ratios. One of the universally used measures to define the size of the dust collector is called “airto-cloth ratio”. This is the ratio of the volumetric flow of air (or gas) into the dust collector divided by the total external surface area of the dust collector’s filter elements: Air flow (acfm)/Surface area (ft2) This ratio expresses the air (or gas) velocity, in ft/min, at the external surface of the filter elements. For depthtype filter elements, this velocity is important because it affects their life as well as their filtration efficiency. High velocities cause the solid particles entrained in the air to penetrate deeper into the filter, eventually resulting in plugging up of all of the passages through which the air can flow out of the filter element. This is especially true if the solid particles are very fine in size. Once the filter element is plugged, it must be thrown away and replaced. The required size or surface area of the filter medium depends upon the dust loading and the fineness of the dust particles. It also depends upon the type of the filter medium used. Typical design guidelines for selecting the air-to-cloth ratios for new dust collectors are as follows: • Fine powders (particle size less than 200 mesh): 1 to 5 • Granular materials: 5 to 7 • Pelleted materials, such as pelleted plastics: 7 to 9 Use the above ranges of values for dust collectors that are in continuous service. One can use higher ratios if the dust collectors are used intermittently, or if the dust loading is light, or if retrofits of existing dust collectors are required. However, do not use air-to-cloth ratios greater than 12, because of the high velocities that they generate and the resulting damage that such velocities can cause to the filter elements. When retrofitting existing dust collectors or for incremental expansions, relax the above ratios to maximum ratios of 7, 10, and 12, respectively. For very fine dusts such as talc that has a particle size in the range of 1 to 5 micrometers, use a ratio of 1 with 2 as a maximum. Superficial gas velocity. In addition to the surface area, the other major requirement for sizing a dust collector is that the dust particles or the dust cake should drop after they leave the surface of the bags and not remain suspended between the bags. If the bags are located too close to each other, the removed dust particles can remain suspended and not fall below the filter elements. To assure that the dust particles fall, the criterion used is called the free space velocity or the superficial upward gas velocity outside adjacent filter elements. This velocity is equal to air or gas flow coming into This velocity determines whether the dust particles that are released from the filter surfaces will drop to the bottom of the dust collector, or will remain suspended in the gas space between the filter elements. If this velocity is too high for a given particle size — i.e., higher than the particle terminal velocity — the particles will remain suspended and will not fall. This problem is worse when the dust particles are ?fines and streamers’ that are produced during high-velocity pneumatic conveying of plastic materials, such as polyethylene. In general, when the superficial velocity is too high, these fines and streamers do not fall but remain suspended and form ?bird nests’ between the adjacent filter elements, eventually plugging the entire dust collector. The following guidelines are used to determine the superficial gas velocity: • Fine powders (less than 200 mesh): 150 ft/min maximum • Granular materials: 250 ft/min max- imum • Pelleted materials: 300 ft/min maxi- mum Use a maximum velocity of 75 ft/min for very fine dusts, such as talc and carbon black. Arrange the layout of the filter elements so that this velocity is not exceeded in any part of the dust collector. The basis for the above superficial velocities is single-particle terminal velocity in a dust collector at a few inches of water pressure. For example, the terminal velocity of 60-mesh (or about 200-micrometer) granular polyethylene particles in air is 4.2 ft/s or about 250 ft/min. This means that all particles larger than 60 mesh or 200 micrometers will drop from the dust collector’s filtration section to the bottom of the dust collector or will not enter the filtration section. The 60-mesh particle size is selected instead of a smaller CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO4K5 Feature Report size because the cake that forms on the sizes should be checked to assure filter surface increases the size of the that they are adequate to provide dust particles that are released. full gas pressure (80 to 100 psig) at When handling gases other than air, the orifice nozzle above each bag. or when operating at pressures higher than atmospheric, the above superficial velocities should be recalculated using Stokes' Law. Dust loading. Dust loading is also an important criterion for sizing dust collectors. Minimize the incoming dust loading to reduce the size of the dust collector. In general, the incoming dust loading should not exceed 20 grains per acfm of air or gas. If the incoming air or gas has a higher than 20 grains solids loading, reduce this loading by using equipment such as “pre-separators” or impingement separators. Pulse-air control system. Reducing the pulse air pressure can control the intensity of cleaning of the bags. Typically, the supply pressure is about 90 to 100 psig. This pressure can be reduced to 30 or 40 psig depending upon the dust loading in the incoming gas stream. In addition, the cleaning frequency can be increased or decreased by adjusting the timer supplied by the dust collector vendor. Normally, this frequency is a gas pulse every 30 seconds to 2 min, but it can be manually changed as required. The duration of the gas pulse is normally about 0.05 to 0.1 seconds but it also can be controlled. These controls are generally located in a control box supplied by the vendor. They should be located so that they have easy access to the operators. An alternative to manual control of the pulse air system is automatic control. The automatic control system initiates the pulse air cycle when the pressure drop across the filter elements is above about 4 in. of water. It then stops when this pressure drop reduces to about 1 in. A clean filter element typically incurs a pressure drop of about 1 in. The benefit of automatic control is that unnecessary pulsing of the bags is avoided and thus the bag life is increased. Another benefit is that the amount of pulse air needed to clean the bags is reduced. The pulse-gas manifold, solenoid valves for each row of bags, and inlet piping up to the manifold are usually sized by the vendor. However, these The high pulse-gas pressure may be required for optimal cleaning of the FIGURE 5. This figure illustrates how the bags, especially if the dust loading is blow-back pipes are located above each row high or the bags are very long. of filter elements in a pulse-jet filter The pulse gas manifold contains orifices for each bag. As stated above, tors. Instead of using bottom-removal these orifices must be perfectly cen- type bags, use top-removal type bags tered above the venturi of each bag. to prevent personnel safety hazards, Perfect centering is critical for satis- especially when access to the bin vent factory operation of the pulse-air sys- filter is poor. tem. Use only those dust collector de- Filter media. Selection of a suitable signs that assure correct positioning filter medium is important for suc- of the orifices. cessful operation of a dust collector. Make sure that the air or gas used Filter media are generally cotton or to pulse the bags is clean and dry. Do synthetic fabrics, or synthetic mem- not use moist air because the moisture branes. Sometimes, for very high tem- may condense on the bags. peratures or for ultrahigh-efficiency Handling of sticky dusts. When filtration requirements, sintered- handling sticky dusts, it is important metal or woven-metal type filter ele- that these dusts do not stick to the ments are used. surface of the bags. In such cases, the The cotton or synthetic fabrics can selection of the filter medium becomes be woven or felted. Felted fabrics have important. Use those filter media that a higher surface area, so they are prevent sticking. These can be Teflon more efficient for a given filter size. As or Gore-Tex type membranes. discussed below, felted fabric can have Moisture in incoming air or gas. a glazed finish, which is a very smooth Moisture in incoming dirty air or gas surface, or a singed finish, which has a will cause rapid fouling of the filter rough texture. The as-produced felted elements because of condensation of fabric has fibers that protrude from the moisture on and inside the filter the surface. These fibers are burnt elements. In such cases, the dust col- and singed for the singed finish and lectors are designed and operated so are further pressed under hot rollers that the temperature inside is above for the smooth or eggshell finish. the gas dew point. In cold climates, the For most applications, felted fabrics dust collector housing may have to be are preferred over woven fabrics be- insulated or even heat traced to pre- cause of the larger surface area, more vent condensation. depth, and smaller pore size. Excep- Location of dust collectors. Locate tions are single sock type filters for du- the dust collectors so that there is ties requiring very light dust removal. easy access to them, and so that the Polyester or polypropylene bags bags can be removed, and replaced are acceptable and interchangeable easily and safely. in most cases, and the choice can be Bin vent filters that are normally made on the basis of cost and avail- installed above bins and silos require ability. The exceptions are based on special attention. Avoid manual entry the following special considerations: inside the bins to remove the bags, be- • Polyester has a significantly higher cause of the safety hazards. In some melting point than polypropylene. special cases, gratings are used below • Polypropylene is limited to process the bags to catch a falling bag or to temperatures below 90°C. Polyester increase manual access to the bags. is limited to temperatures below However, use of such gratings should 150°C be avoided because the accumulation • Polyester deteriorates quickly in the of dust particles on their surface can presence of some chemicals result in product contamination and In applications above 90°C and up to unsafe working conditions for opera- 232°C and where corrosive chemicals 46 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 TLFeBOOK 7RONGSEQUENCE        #LEAN #LEANING $IRTY $IRTY $IRTY $IRTY $IRTY #ORRECTSEQUENCE        #LEAN $IRTY $IRTY #LEAN $IRTY $IRTY #LEANING FIGURE 6. When cleaning the filter bags in a pulse-jet system, cleaning efficiency can be improved by cleaning alternate, rather than adjacent, rows, as shown here are present, bag material, including the thread used to sew the bags, should be Teflon. Do not use Tefloncoated bags because this coating will develop cracks due to the frequent inflation and deflation of the bags used to dislodge the collected particulates. As mentioned above, surface treatment of one of the following types should be specified for non-coated bags: • Eggshell or glazed • Singed These treatments are available on most materials and are roughly equivalent in performance. Essentially, they remove the loose fibers that may result in product contamination. The eggshell or glazed finishing process presses down the loose fibers of the felted cloth into the fabric by using a hot roller. The singed process burns the loose fibers by using a flame. Therefore, singed bags have a higher permeability than eggshell or glazed finish. The weight of cloth should be at least 14 oz/yd2. A weight of 16 oz/yd2 is preferred for longer bag life. These filter media are suitable for removal of dust particles larger than 20 micrometers. They have an efficiency of about 99.9% for most of such dusts. In addition to polyester, polypropylene, and Teflon, a number of other less-often-used filter media are commercially available. Pressure drop across the bags. The dust collector vendor normally supplies a differential pressure indicator connected to the dirty side and to the plenum chamber. Make sure that the dirty side has a filter to prevent dust from migrating into the pressure indicator and affecting its reading. Locate this indicator so that the pressure drop reading is easily visible. If the pulse-air system operates automatically based on pressure drop, provide a pressure differential transmitter in addition to this local indicator so that this reading can be monitored in the control room. When the bags get dirty, the pres- sure drop across the baghouse, including at the inlet and outlet connections, should be in the range of 4 to 8 in. of water (As noted earlier, pulse-jet systems with automatic control initiate it is not imperative that the manufacturers follow any pressure vessel code for the design and construction; hence, all too often, such dust collector vessels are poorly built or have relatively flimsy construction. To guard against such poor construction, specify even the pulse-air cycle when the pressure rises to 4 in. of water.) Pressure drop exceeding 10 in. of water indicates that the bags are too dirty and need replacement. On the other hand, if low-pressure dust collectors so that they meet the ASME pressure-vessel code requirements, even if they do not have the code stamp. Safety considerations. Safe design the pressure drop remains below 1 of the dust collectors is very important in. of water even when handling dirty because of the potential for dust ex- air, then the bags may be leaking or ruptured. As a general rule-of-thumb, clean filter bags should have a pressure drop of about 1 in. of water. Inlet nozzle. Use tangential or plosions when handling combustible dusts. Dust collectors inherently contain fine dust particles; therefore, the probability of a dust explosion is quite high if there are also sufficient oxygen “straight-in” nozzles, based on the and an ignition source of sufficient process needs and the properties of strength inside the dust collector. Fric- the dust being handled. For some of the plastic materials, avoid tangential nozzles because they may increase streamer formation unless inside surface is rough. tion of the synthetic filter media (for instance, bags) against the internal metallic wire cage can always generate a static charge on the cage. This charge can accumulate and develop Inlet nozzles must be baffled or ar- sufficient strength to initiate ignition ranged to avoid direct impingement of unless the cage is grounded. Therefore, solids on filter cloth. The baffle must be designed to overcome the impact forces caused by the incoming high velocity of solids and gases. Materials of construction. Use non- it is imperative that the wire cages are grounded such that the resistance to ground is less than 5 ohms. The bags should have at least one, and preferably two, grounding wires sown into rusting materials such as aluminum or stainless steel for applications where the collected solids are returned to the process. Carbon steel is acceptable in an inert or non-corrosive atmosphere, them so that these wires make a positive contact with the cage and with the grounded tube sheet. For sizing of the explosion vents, their mounting methods, and testing such as closed-loop nitrogen conveying requirements, use the design guidesystems or in dust collectors in which lines given in the NFPA 68 standards. the collected dust is discarded. Steel or epoxy-coated steel is accept- able in applications where the collected solids are considered waste, such as in Locate dust collectors handling combustible dusts and whose volume is larger than 8 ft3 outside closed buildings. If an inside location is unavoid- central dust collection systems. Mechanical design considerations. Most dust collectors are used in relatively low-pressure applications (such as those with a pressure rating of less able, locate the dust collector very close to an outside wall, use the design method explosion venting for designing the explosion vent, and provide a duct between the explosion vent and than 15 psig). For these applications, the outside of the building, all as de- CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO4K7 Feature Report scribed in the NFPA standards. Electrical grounding requirements for dust collectors are as follows: 1.The housing must have grounding lugs for direct grounding to connected equipment, steel structures, or to ground. 2.All internal metal parts, including venturis, wire cages and bag clamps, must be connected to the housing for positive and continuous grounding. 3.Do not use conductive bags or filter elements, because if they rupture, a spark could be generated due to the accumulated charge on their surface. Bags themselves do not need grounding; only the wire cages that support the bags need grounding. Do not use compressed air to blowclean the bags while they are still inside a dust collector because of the potential dust explosion hazard. Wire cages for bags. Wire cages must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure that a bag is ex- posed to; otherwise, they will deform and may rupture. Instead of carbon steel, which could rust and degrade product quality, use stainless steel or galvanized steel wire cages. Typically, the cages should have at least eight rods made from 10-gage wire with at least eight rings. Pleated filter elements. Pleated filter elements provide more surface area than cylindrical bags; however, dust can accumulate inside the pleats and not release when the filters are pulsed. This is particularly true for sticky dusts. Certain pleated designs, such as those whose pleats are not folded too close to each other or are not too deep, may be suitable for some dusts. Dust collectors in feed bins Dust collectors that are used in feed bins require special care because they can get severely damaged if discharge of the material from the feed bin stops and new material keeps on entering the bin from a pneumatic conveying system or from another source. Because of the rising level of the material bags can get buried under the material, get collapsed, or restrict the flow of the conveying gas. To prevent such incidents, the rotary valve, which is generally used as the feed-out device, is provided with a motion switch installed on its rotor, such that if the rotor stops, the incoming pneumatic conveying system or any other feed stream also stops. Redundant level switches in the bin are also provided to stop the flow of incoming material into the bin. Dust collector efficiency. Felted polyester bags capture particles up to 20 micrometers. Their efficiency depends upon the size of the dust particles but, in general, it is about 99.95% if the dust collector is correctly sized and operated. Bags with Gore-Tex membrane (or equivalent membrane) capture par- DOUBLE WALL PLASTIC STORAGE TANKS All-in-one Design, Saves Valuable Floor Space. Elliminates the Need for Containment Pallets. 50 GALLON TANK DESIGNED TO FIT THROUGH A 28” DOORWAY / OPENING! Choose From 12 Sizes in 50 - 6,000 Gallon Capacities Shown with optional pump Sales office open 8AM - 8 PM EST INDUSTRIES, INC. 1•800•275•2436 chemtainer.com adlinks.che.com/4517-34 48 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 NOZZLES: We raised the capacity of our Twist & DryTM nozzles from 3,500 psi to 10,000 psi for operating condi- Twist & DryTM tions up to 450°F. Now you can increase produc- for Spray Drying tivity while maintaining the convenient locking mechanism and superior performance of our Twist & DryTM nozzles. ® BETE Fog Nozzle, Inc. 50 Greenfield St. Greenfield, MA 01301 PHONE: 413-772-0846 FAX: 413-772-6729 To find out more about this nozzles visit: www.bete.com/ceng-td.html QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM adlinks.che.com/4517-35 TLFeBOOK ticles up to 2 micrometers. Their efficiency can be as high as 99.99%. Guard filters. As noted earlier, guard filters are often provided as protection against the failure of a primary filter. Their surface area can be much smaller because of their infrequent use. The air-to-cloth ratio can be five times that of the primary filter. However, they should use the same type of filter element as that used in the primary filter so that they can capture the same size particles. Instrumentation and control systems. Controls for pulse-air systems are discussed above. Aside from that, dust collectors are generally provided with the following instruments and controls as a minimum: • A local and an optional remote dif- ferential pressure indicator to enable monitoring of the pressure drop across the filter elements • Alarms for both very high pressure and very low pressure drops across the filter elements, as indications for bag replacement • A high level switch interlocked to stop the incoming material flow located at least one foot below the filter elements to prevent damage to the bags • For pulse-jet dust collectors, timers to control the duration of the pulse and the frequency of the pulse, and a selector switch to control the sequence of pulsing rows of bags. These are provided by the dust collector vendor but can be locally adjusted. • For pulse-jet dust collectors, a pressure control valve with a pressure gage to control and monitor the pulse gas pressure The design of dust collectors is a subject that is generally not included in many engineering curricula, despite the widespread use of dust collectors in many chemical process and manufacturing operations. The information provided here should give design and operating engineers sufficient guid- ance for the successful selection, spec- ification and operation of dust collec- tors. ■ Edited by Suzanne Shelley Author Amrit T. Agarwal is a consulting engineer with Pneumatic Conveying Consulting Services (7 Carriage Road, Charleston, WV 25314; Phone: 304-346-5125; Fax: 304-3465125; Email: polypcc@aol. com). He joined this consulting firm after retiring from The Dow Chemical Co. in 2002, where he worked as a solids-handling senior research specialist and a resident pneumatic conveying consultant. Agarwal has more than 40 years of design, construction, operating and troubleshooting experience in pneumatic conveying and bulksolids-handling processes. He holds an M.S. in mechanical engineering from the University of Wisconsin (Madison), and an MBA from Marshall University’s College of Graduate Studies (Charleston, W. Va.). He is a member of AIChE’s Particle Technology Forum, has written a number of articles and given classes on pneumatic conveying and bulk-solids handling. On Demand Environmental provides experienced EH&S personnel for extended on-site assignments. Selecting from our full menu of versatile, knowledgeable Associates ensures an optimal match between staff skills and your needs. While saving you time, money, and effort, On Demand Environmental serves up the solution to your environmental staffing issues. STAFFING SOLUTIONS MADE TO ORDER adlinks.che.com/4517-36 adlinks.che.com/4517-37 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO4K9 Engineering Practice Solubility & Henry’s Law Constants for Chlorinated Compounds in Water The new correlation and data presented here are appropriate even for very low concentrations Carl L. Yaws, Prasad K. Narasimhan and Helen H. Lou Lamar University         3OLUBILITYINWATER PPMWT Ralph W. Pike  Louisiana State University T he solubility of chlorinated compounds in water is very important. This importance will increase in the future in view   of heath, safety and environ- mental considerations. Although such compounds are relatively insoluble in  water, even very low concentrations        (ppm or less) can provide concentra- "OILINGPOINT + tions in air at the air-water interface that exceed the threshold-limit value (TLV) for human exposure and the -ONOCHLORINATEDALKANES $ATA #ORRELATION !ROMATICS $ATA #ORRELATION lower-explosion limit (LEL) for flammability. Results for water solubility and Henry’s Law constants are presented FIGURE 1. As shown by this plot of solubility versus boiling point, monochlorinated alkanes are slightly less soluable in water than aromatic compounds for a wide variety of chlorinated com- tions for monochlorinated alkanes in trates the importance solubility relapounds (alkanes, olefins, and aromat- water. The correlation is based on the tionships for chlorinated compounds, ics containing chlorine) in water. The boiling point of the compound. Corre- even at very low concentrations. A results are provided in an easy-to-use lation and experimental data are in sample calculation is also shown in tabular format that is especially appli- favorable agreement. The results are the box on p. 56. cable for rapid engineering usage with useable in health, safety, and environ- For human exposure to substances the personal computer or hand calcu- mental studies. in air, the threshold-limit value (TLV) lator. A new correlation for solubility is also presented. The new correlation Consider these examples for dichloromethane in air is given as 50 ppm (parts per million) by volume maybe used to provide reliable solubil- The following brief discussion, using by the U.S. Occupation Safety and ity values down to very low concentra- dichloromethane as an example, illus- Health Act (OSHA; 10). A concentra- 50 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 TLFeBOOK SOLUBILITY IN WATER, (S), AND HENRY’S LAW CONSTANT (H) No. Formula 1 CCl4 2 CHCl3 3 CH2Cl2 4 CH3Cl 5 C2Cl4 6 C2Cl6 7 C2HCl3 8 C2HCl5 9 C2H2Cl2 10 C2H2Cl2 11 C2H2Cl2 12 C2H2Cl4 13 C2H2Cl4 14 C2H2Cl 15 C2H3Cl3 16 C2H3Cl3 17 C2H4Cl2 18 C2H4Cl2 19 C2H5Cl 20 C3H4Cl2 21 C3H5Cl 22 C3H5Cl3 23 C3H5Cl3 24 C3H5Cl3 Name carbon tetrachloride chloroform dichloromethane methyl chloride tetrachloroethylene hexachloroethane trichloroethylene pentachloroethane 1,1-dichloroethylene cis-1,2-dichloroethylene trans-1,2-dichloroethylene 1,1,1,2-tetrachloroethane 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane vinyl chloride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,1,2-trichloroethane 1,1-dichloroethane 1,2-dichloroethane ethyl chloride 2,3-dichloropropene 3-chloro-1-propene 1,1,1-trichloropropane 1,1,2-trichloropropane 1,2,3-trichloropropane CAS No. 56-23-5 67-66-3 75-09-2 74-87-3 127-18-4 67-72-1 79-01-6 76-01-7 75-35-4 156-59-2 156-60-5 630-20-6 79-34-5 75-01-4 71-55-6 79-00-5 75-34-3 107-06-2 75-00-3 78-88-6 107-05-1 7789-89-1 598-77-6 96-18-4 TB, K 349.79 334.33 312.90 248.93 394.40 460.00 360.10 433.03 304.71 333.65 320.85 403.65 418.25 259.78 347.23 387.00 330.45 356.59 285.42 365.75 318.11 379.15 405.15 430.00 S @ 25°C, S @ 25°C, Code H @ 25°C, H @ 25°C, Code ppm (wt) ppm (mol) atm/mol atm/mol/ frac m3 8.0000E+02 9.3681E+01 1 1589.36 2.8609E–02 1,2 7.8400E+03 1.1901E+03 1 211.19 3.8015E–03 1,2 1.9400E+04 4.1754E+03 1 137.00 2.4661E–03 1,2 5.3800E+03 1.9264E+03 1 502.93 9.0528E–03 1,2 1.5000E+02 1.6297E+01 1 1542.31 2.7762E–02 1,2 8.0000E+00 6.0878E–01 1 1281.09 2.3060E–02 1,2 1.1000E+03 1.5097E+02 1 661.08 1.1900E–02 1,2 5.0000E+02 4.4547E+01 1 106.35 1.9143E–03 1,2 3.3450E+03 6.2338E+02 1 1253.86 2.2570E–02 1,2 3.5000E+03 6.5227E+02 1 395.77 7.1239E–03 1,2 6.3000E+03 1.1768E+03 1 360.96 6.4973E–03 1,2 1.1000E+03 1.1808E+02 1 142.63 2.5674E–03 1,2 3.0000E+03 3.2258E+02 1 20.52 3.6940E–04 1,2 2.6970E+03 7.7890E+02 1 1243.84 2.2389E–02 1,2 1.0000E+03 1.3505E+02 1 1186.15 2.1351E–02 1,2 4.4200E+03 5.9868E+02 1 53.26 9.5863E–04 1,2 5.1000E+03 9.3155E+02 1 317.63 5.7173E–03 1,2 8.7000E+03 1.5938E+03 1 64.14 1.1546E–03 1,2 5.7000E+03 1.6095E+03 1 601.94 1.0835E–02 1,2 2.1500E+03 3.4966E+02 1 239.53 4.3115E–03 1,2 4.0000E+03 9.4454E+02 1 526.77 9.4820E–03 1,2 1.9000E+03 2.3236E+02 1 136.73 2.4611E–03 1,2 1.9000E+03 2.3236E+02 1 36.41 6.5530E–04 1,2 1.7500E+03 2.1399E+02 1 23.78 4.2803E–04 1,2 25 C3H6Cl2 1,2-dichloropropane 78-87-5 369.52 2.7400E+03 4.3752E+02 1 26 C3H6Cl2 1,3-dichloropropane 142-28-9 393.55 2.8000E+03 4.4713E+02 1 27 C3H7Cl 1-chloropropane 540-54-5 319.67 2.5000E+03 5.7453E+02 1 28 C3H7Cl 2-chloropropane 75-29-6 308.85 3.0400E+03 6.9892E+02 1 29 C4H8Cl2 1,1-dichlorobutane 541-33-3 386.95 5.0100E+02 7.1031E+01 1 30 C4H8Cl2 DL-2,3-dichlorobutane 2211-67-8 392.65 5.6200E+02 7.9684E+01 1 31 C4H8Cl2 meso-2,3-dichlorobutane 4028-56-2 389.15 5.6200E+02 7.9684E+01 1 32 C4H9Cl 1-chlorobutane 109-69-3 351.58 8.7200E+02 1.6982E+02 1 33 C4H9Cl 1-chloro-2-methylpropane 513-36-0 342.00 9.2400E+02 1.7996E+02 1 34 C4H9Cl 2-chlorobutane 78-86-4 341.25 1.0000E+03 1.9477E+02 1 35 C4H9Cl 2-chloro-2-methylpropane 507-20-0 323.75 2.8700E+03 5.5984E+02 1 36 C4H9Cl 2-chlorobutane 53178-20-4 341.35 1.0218E+03 1.9903E+02 2 37 C5H10Cl2 1,2-dichloropentane 1674-33-5 420.15 2.8600E+02 3.6510E+01 1 38 C5H10Cl2 2,3-dichloropentane 600-11-3 412.15 2.8600E+02 3.6510E+01 1 Code: 1 - data, 2 - estimate TB - boiling point, K S - solubility in water, ppm H - Henry’s Law constant 157.45 53.66 786.75 956.06 423.09 210.90 249.91 791.61 947.68 1042.66 715.18 995.91 108.98 173.83 2.8341E–03 1,2 9.6581E–04 1,2 1.4162E–02 1,2 1.7209E–02 1,2 7.6158E–03 1,2 3.7962E–03 1,2 4.4983E–03 1,2 1.4249E–02 1,2 1.7058E–02 1,2 1.8768E–02 1,2 1.2873E–02 1,2 1.7927E–02 1,2 1.9616E–03 1,2 3.1289E–03 1,2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO5K1 Engineering Practice SOLUBILITY IN WATER, (S), AND HENRY’S LAW CONSTANT (H) No. Formula Name CAS No. TB, K S @ 25°C, S @ 25°C, Code H @ 25°C, H @ 25°C, Code ppm (wt) ppm (mol) atm/mol atm/mol/ frac m3 39 C5H10Cl2 2,3-dichloro-2-methylbu- 507-45-9 tane 402.15 2.8600E+02 3.6510E+01 1 190.84 3.4351E–03 1,2 40 C5H11Cl 1-chloropentane 543-59-9 381.54 2.0100E+02 3.3976E+01 1 1226.90 2.2084E–02 1,2 41 C5H11Cl 2-chloropentane 625-29-6 369.67 2.5100E+02 4.2429E+01 1 1568.14 2.8227E–02 1,2 42 C5H11Cl 3-chloropentane 616-20-6 370.94 2.5100E+02 4.2429E+01 1 1117.04 2.0107E–02 1,2 43 C5H11Cl 1-chloro-2-methylbutane 616-13-7 373.69 2.6895E+02 4.5464E+01 2 1265.76 2.2784E–02 1,2 44 C5H11Cl 1-chloro-3-methylbutane 107-84-6 371.66 2.9478E+02 4.9831E+01 2 1409.26 2.5367E–02 1,2 45 C5H11Cl 2-chloro-2-methylbutane 594-36-5 358.76 3.2900E+02 5.5618E+01 1 1825.97 3.2868E–02 1,2 46 C5H11Cl 2-chloro-3-methylbutane 631-65-2 365.95 3.7952E+02 6.4161E+01 2 954.03 1.7173E–02 1,2 47 C5H11Cl 1-chloro-2,2-dimethylpro- 753-89-9 pane 357.45 5.4461E+02 9.2083E+01 2 996.27 1.7933E–02 1,2 48 C5H11Cl 1-chloro-2-methylbutane, 1 1 4 1 8 0 - 373.05 2.7687E+02 4.6803E+01 2 (±) 21-1 1205.32 2.1696E–02 1,2 49 C5H11Cl 2-chloropentane, (+) 29882-57-3 370.15 3.1538E+02 5.3315E+01 2 1152.71 2.0749E–02 1,2 50 C6Cl6 hexachlorobenzene 118-74-1 582.55 6.0000E–03 3.7955E–04 1 72.92 1.3126E–03 1,2 51 C6H3Cl3 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 120-82-1 486.15 3.4570E+01 3.4324E+00 1 167.10 3.0078E–03 1,2 52 C6H4Cl2 o-dichlorobenzene 95-50-1 453.57 9.2320E+01 1.1315E+01 1 172.15 3.0988E–03 1,2 53 C6H4Cl2 m-dichlorobenzene 541-73-1 446.23 1.2300E+02 1.5075E+01 1 198.63 3.5753E–03 1,2 54 C6H4Cl2 p-dichlorobenzene 106-46-7 447.21 8.0000E+01 9.8046E+00 1 234.74 4.2255E–03 1,2 55 C6H5Cl chlorobenzene 108-90-7 404.87 3.9070E+02 6.2552E+01 1 270.67 4.8722E–03 1,2 56 C6H13Cl 1-chlorohexane 544-10-5 408.24 6.4300E+01 9.6038E+00 1 1292.58 2.3267E–02 1,2 57 C6H13Cl 2-chlorohexane 638-28-8 397.15 8.7685E+01 1.3097E+01 2 1040.21 1.8724E–02 1,2 58 C6H13Cl 3-chlorohexane 2346-81-8 396.15 9.2165E+01 1.3766E+01 2 1039.15 1.8705E–02 1,2 59 C6H13Cl 1-chloro-2-methylpentane 14753-05-0 393.15 1.0692E+02 1.5970E+01 2 1036.20 1.8652E–02 1,2 60 C6H13Cl 1-chloro-3-methylpentane 62016-93-7 402.15 6.8189E+01 1.0185E+01 2 1045.98 1.8828E–02 1,2 61 C6H13Cl 1-chloro-4-methylpentane 62016-94-8 398.15 8.3410E+01 1.2458E+01 2 1041.31 1.8744E–02 1,2 62 C6H13Cl 2-chloro-2-methylpentane 4325-48-8 384.65 1.6144E+02 2.4115E+01 2 1117.36 2.0113E–02 1,2 63 C6H13Cl 2-chloro-3-methylpentane 24319-09-3 380.00 2.0109E+02 3.0038E+01 2 1067.60 1.9217E–02 2 64 C6H13Cl 2-chloro-4-methylpentane 25346-32-1 386.15 1.5027E+02 2.2445E+01 2 1072.08 1.9298E–02 1,2 65 C6H13Cl 3-chloro-2-methylpentane 38384-05-3 385.00 1.5877E+02 2.3716E+01 2 1071.01 1.9278E–02 2 Code: 1 - data, 2 - estimate TB - boiling point, K S - solubility in water, ppm H - Henry’s Law constant tion of only 0.00001 mol fraction of dichloromethane in water will provide 1,370 ppm of dichloromethane in air at air water interface, which far exceeds the TLV of 50 ppm. Similarly, but in the context of plant safety, the lower-explosion limit (LEL) for dichloromethane in air is given as 15.5% by Yaws [10]. A concentration of only 0.0015 mol fraction of dichloromethane in water will provide about 20.6% of dichloromethane in air at the air-water interface, which far exceeds the LEL of 15.5 %. Finally, consider the following environmental scenario: a spill of dichloro- 52 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 methane in water. The water will become saturated with dichloromethane. At saturation, the solubility of dichloromethane in water is about 0.00417 mol fraction (19,400 ppm by weight) as given by Horvath [4, 5]. This saturation concentration will provide about 572,000 ppm or 57.2% of di- TLFeBOOK SOLUBILITY IN WATER, (S), AND HENRY’S LAW CONSTANT (H) No. Formula Name CAS No. TB, K S @ 25°C, S @ 25°C, Code H @ 25°C, H @ 25°C, Code ppm (wt) ppm (mol) atm/mol atm/mol/ frac m3 66 C6H13Cl 3-chloro-3-methylpentane 918-84-3 389.15 1.3001E+02 1.9420E+01 2 1124.62 2.0243E–02 1,2 67 C6H13Cl 1-chloro-2-ethylbutane 4737-41-1 399.15 7.9331E+01 1.1849E+01 2 1042.44 1.8764E–02 1,2 68 C6H13Cl 1-chloro-2,2-dimethylbu- 6366-35-4 390.15 1.2384E+02 1.8498E+01 2 tane 1126.43 2.0276E–02 1,2 69 C6H13Cl 1-chloro-2,3-dimethylbu- 600-06-6 tane 395.15 9.6857E+01 1.4467E+01 2 1083.45 1.9502E–02 1,2 70 C6H13Cl 1-chloro-3,3-dimethylbu- 2855-08-5 390.15 1.2384E+02 1.8498E+01 2 tane 1126.43 2.0276E–02 1,2 71 C6H13Cl 2-chloro-2,3-dimethylbu- 594-57-0 tane 385.15 1.5764E+02 2.3546E+01 2 1159.87 2.0878E–02 1,2 72 C6H13Cl 2-chloro-3,3-dimethylbu- 5750-00-5 384.15 1.6534E+02 2.4697E+01 2 tane 1157.91 2.0843E–02 1,2 73 C7H7Cl p-chlorotoluene 106-43-4 435.65 1.0630E+02 1.5130E+01 1 240.57 4.3302E–03 1,2 74 C7H15Cl 1-chloroheptane 629-06-1 433.59 1.3600E+01 1.8196E+00 1 2130.28 3.8345E–02 1,2 75 C7H15Cl 2-chloro-2,3-dimethylpen- 59889-45-1 413.42 3.8197E+01 5.1106E+00 2 tane 1326.50 2.3877E–02 2 76 C7H15Cl 2-chloro-2,4-dimethylpen- 35951-33-8 401.15 7.1728E+01 9.5973E+00 2 tane 1024.73 1.8445E–02 1,2 77 C7H15Cl 3-chloro-2,3-dimethylpen- 595-38-0 tane 401.15 7.1728E+01 9.5973E+00 2 1024.73 1.8445E–02 2 78 C7H15Cl 4-chloro-2,2-dimethylpen- 33429-72-0 401.15 7.1728E+01 9.5973E+00 2 tane 1024.73 1.8445E–02 1,2 79 C7H15Cl 3-chloro-3-ethylpentane 994-25-2 416.65 3.2253E+01 4.3153E+00 2 1430.30 2.5746E–02 1,2 80 C7H15Cl 2-chloroheptane 1001-89-4 413.42 3.8197E+01 5.1106E+00 2 1326.50 2.3877E–02 2 81 C7H15Cl 3-chloroheptane 999-52-0 417.15 3.1417E+01 4.2035E+00 2 1447.43 2.6054E–02 1,2 82 C7H15Cl 4-chloroheptane 998-95-8 417.15 3.1417E+01 4.2035E+00 2 1447.43 2.6054E–02 1,2 83 C7H15Cl 1-chloro-3-methylhexane 1 0 1 2 5 7 - 424.15 2.1695E+01 2.9027E+00 2 63-0 1721.46 3.0987E–02 1,2 84 C7H15Cl 2-chloro-2-methylhexane 4398-65-6 408.15 5.0186E+01 6.7148E+00 2 1180.70 2.1253E–02 2 85 C7H15Cl 2-chloro-5-methylhexane 58766-17-9 411.15 4.2977E+01 5.7503E+00 2 1260.41 2.2688E–02 2 86 C7H15Cl 3-chloro-3-methylhexane 43197-78-0 408.15 5.0186E+01 6.7148E+00 2 1180.70 2.1253E–02 1,2 87 C7H15Cl 2-chloro-2,3,3-trimethylbu- 918-07-0 tane 413.42 3.8197E+01 5.1106E+00 2 1326.50 2.3877E–02 2 88 C8H17Cl 1-chlorooctane 111-85-3 456.62 4.8900E+00 5.9252E–01 1 2031.78 3.6572E–02 1,2 89 C8H17Cl 2-chloro-2,5-dimethylhex- 29342-44-7 442.45 8.0968E+00 9.8110E–01 2 ane 1778.64 3.2016E–02 2 90 C8H17Cl 3-chloro-2,3-dimethylhex- 1 0 1 6 5 4 - 442.45 8.0968E+00 9.8110E–01 2 ane 30-2 1778.64 3.2016E–02 2 91 C8H17Cl 2-chloro-2-methylheptane 4325-49-9 442.45 8.0968E+00 9.8110E–01 2 1778.64 3.2016E–02 2 92 C8H17Cl 2-chloro-6-methylheptane 2350-19-8 442.45 8.0968E+00 9.8110E–01 2 1778.64 3.2016E–02 2 93 C8H17Cl 3-chloro-3-methylheptane 5272-02-6 442.45 8.0968E+00 9.8110E–01 2 1778.64 3.2016E–02 2 94 C8H17Cl 4-chloro-4-methylheptane 61764-94-1 442.45 8.0968E+00 9.8110E–01 2 1778.64 3.2016E–02 2 Code: 1 - data, 2 - estimate TB - boiling point, K S - solubility in water, ppm H - Henry’s Law constant CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO5K3 Engineering Practice SOLUBILITY IN WATER, (S), AND HENRY’S LAW CONSTANT (H) No. Formula Name CAS No. TB, K S @ 25°C, S @ 25°C, Code H @ 25°C, H @ 25°C, Code ppm (wt) ppm (mol) atm/mol atm/mol/ frac m3 95 C8H17Cl 3-(chloromethyl)heptane 123-04-6 445.15 6.9930E+00 8.4735E–01 2 1914.84 3.4467E–02 1,2 96 C8H17Cl 2-chlorooctane 628-61-5 445.15 6.9930E+00 8.4735E–01 2 1914.84 3.4467E–02 1,2 97 C8H17Cl 2-chloro-2,4,4-trimethyl- 6111-88-2 445.15 6.9930E+00 8.4735E–01 2 pentane 1914.84 3.4467E–02 2 98 C8H17Cl (S)-2-chlorooctane 16844-08-9 442.45 8.0968E+00 9.8110E–01 2 1778.64 3.2016E–02 2 99 C8H17Cl (<+->)-2-chlorooctane 51261-14-4 445.20 6.9740E+00 8.4504E–01 2 1917.48 3.4515E–02 1,2 100 C8H17Cl 2-ethylhexyl-6-chloride 2350-24-5 442.45 8.0968E+00 9.8110E–01 2 1778.64 3.2016E–02 2 101 C8H19Cl 1-chlorononane 2473-01-0 478.37 1.1495E+00 1.2728E–01 2 2989.86 5.3818E–02 1,2 102 C9H19Cl 3-chloro-3-ethyl-2,2-di- 86661-53-2 470.76 1.7339E+00 1.9198E–01 2 methylpentane 2395.21 4.3114E–02 2 103 C9H19Cl 3-chloro-3-ethylheptane 28320-89-0 470.76 1.7339E+00 1.9198E–01 2 2395.21 4.3114E–02 2 104 C9H19Cl 3-chloro-3-methyloctane 28320-88-9 470.76 1.7339E+00 1.9198E–01 2 2395.21 4.3114E–02 2 105 C9H19Cl 4-chloro-4-methyloctane 36903-89-6 470.76 1.7339E+00 1.9198E–01 2 2395.21 4.3114E–02 2 106 C9H19Cl 2-chlorononane 2216-36-6 463.15 2.6218E+00 2.9030E–01 2 1928.10 3.4706E–02 1,2 107 C9H19Cl 5-chlorononane 28123-70-8 470.76 1.7339E+00 1.9198E–01 2 2395.21 4.3114E–02 2 108 C9H19Cl 3-chloro-2,2,3-trimethyl- 1 0 2 4 4 9 - 470.76 1.7339E+00 1.9198E–01 2 hexane 95-6 2395.21 4.3114E–02 2 109 C10H7Cl 1-chloronaphthalene 90-13-1 532.45 2.2400E+01 2.4815E+00 1 10.96 1.9737E–04 1,2 110 C10H21Cl 1-chlorodecane 1002-69-3 499.02 3.8530E–01 3.9276E–02 2 3241.51 5.8348E–02 1,2 111 C10H21Cl decyl chloride (mixed iso- 28519-06-4 499.02 3.8530E–01 3.9276E–02 2 mers) 3241.51 5.8348E–02 2 112 C11H23Cl 1-chloroundecane 2473-03-2 518.49 1.4408E–01 1.3607E–02 2 3021.06 5.4380E–02 1,2 113 C12H25Cl 1-chlorododecane 112-52-7 536.33 6.1982E–02 5.4526E–03 2 2330.48 4.1949E–02 1,2 114 C13H27Cl 1-chlorotridecane 822-13-9 553.15 2.9864E–02 2.4587E–03 2 1766.40 3.1796E–02 1,2 115 C14H29Cl 1-chlorotetradecane 2425-54-9 569.99 1.2200E–02 9.4394E–04 1 1352.95 2.4353E–02 1,2 116 C15H31Cl 1-chloropentadecane 4862-03-1 585.15 9.2984E–03 6.7855E–04 2 527.69 9.4985E–03 1,2 117 C16H33Cl 1-chlorohexadecane 4860-03-1 599.75 6.1362E–03 4.2372E–04 2 209.19 3.7655E–03 1,2 Code: 1 - data, 2 - estimate TB - boiling point, K S - solubility in water, ppm H - Henry’s Law constant chloromethane in air at the air-water interface. This concentration greatly exceeds both the TLV of 50 ppm and the LEL of 15.6%. Correlation for water solubility In earlier work by Yaws and coworkers [10], water solubility for hydrocarbons and other chemical types was correlated as a function of the boiling point of the compound. In this present work, it was determined that the boiling point method was also applicable for correlation of water solubility of monochlorinated alkanes: log10(S) = A + BTB + CTB2 + DTB3 (1) where S = solubility in water at 25°C, ppm by weight, ppm (wt) TB = boiling point temperature of compound, K A = –7.4500 B = +1.0050 E–01 C = –2.7288 E–04 D = +1.9987 E–07 The correlation applies to a range for boiling point temperature of about 280 to 590K. 54 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 The coefficients (A, B, C, D) for the correlation were determined through regression of the available data. In preparing the correlation, we conducted a literature search to identify relevant data-source publications [1–11]. The excellent compilations by Howard and Meylan [6]; Mackay, Shiu, and Ma [7]; Verschueren [8]; Yalkowsky [9]; and Yaws [10, 11] were utilized to a great extent. The publications were screened, and copies of appropriate data were made. These data were then keyed-in to the computer, to provide TLFeBOOK 13&4&/54 "$)&.".&3*$" 1SF4IPX 1MBOOFS 3FTFSWBUJPOTGPSCPUI UIF.BSDIJTTVFBOE "$)&.".&3*$"TVQQMFNFOU BSFEVF 'FC  1"MBQOSJMUP#&) &3&PO  'PSNPSFJOGPSNBUJPO DPOUBDU ZPVSEJTUSJDUTBMFTNBOBHFSPS 1VCMJTIFS/FMMB7FMESBOBU  PSBU OWFMESBO!DIFDPN "DIFN"NFSJDB UIFOE*OUFSOBUJPOBM&YIJCJUJPOPO1SPDFTT 5FDIOPMPHJFTXJMMUBLFQMBDFJO.FYJDP$JUZ "QSJM %SJWFUSBö  DUPZPVSCPPUICZBEWFSUJTJOHJO $&TTQFDJBMQSFTIPXQMBOOFS 1PMZCBHHFEXJUIUIF.BSDIJTTVF UIJTTQFDJBMTVQQMFNFOUXJMMHJWF PVSSFBEFSTUIFBCJMJUZUPQMBOGPSBQFSGFDUTIPX'SPNnPPSNBQTUP FYIJCJUPSMJTUT OFXQSPEVDUQSFWJFXTBOEXIBUUPEPBOEXIFSFUP HPJO.FYJDP$JUZ UIJTTVQQMFNFOUJTUIFPQUJNBMQMBUGPSNUPHFUUIF NPTUPVUPGUIFTIPX "EEJUJPOBMMZ UIFTVQQMFNFOUXJMMCFEJTUSJCVUFEBUBMMTIPXFOUSBODFT FOTVSJOHZPVSNFTTBHFSFBDIFTUIJTBVEJFODFBUUIFTIPXBTXFMM #VUNPSFJNQPSUBOUMZ UIJTJTZPVSVOJRVFPQQPSUVOJUZUPIJHIMJHIU ZPVSQSPEVDUTBOETFSWJDFTCFGPSFBOEEVSJOHUIFTIPX BOEESJWF USBöDSJHIUUPZPVSCPPUI $IFNJDBM&OHJOFFSJOH5IF0OMZ(MPCBM1VCMJDBUJPOJOUIF$1* TLFeBOOK Engineering Practice SAMPLE CALCULATIONS Example 1. A chemical spill of 2-chlorobutane (C4H9Cl) occurs into a body of water at ambient conditions (25°C, 1 atm). Estimate the concentration of 2-chlorobutane in the water at saturation. Substitution of the coefficients and boiling point temperature into the correlation equation yields: concentration in the liquid at the surface of the water is 0.0001 mol fraction (xi = 0.0001). Estimate the concentration of 2-chlorobutane in the air at the surface of the water. From thermodynamics at low pressure, the vapor concentration is given by: log10(S) = A + BTB + CTB2 + DTB3 = –7.4500 + (1.0050 E–01).(341.25) + (–2.7288 E–04).(341.25)2 + (1.9987 E–07).(341.25)3 = 3.01097 Solubility = 103.1097 = 1,025.6 ppm (wt) yi = (Hi/Pt).xi Substitution of Henry’s law constant from the table, total pressure (Pt = 1 atm) and liquid concentration into the above equation provides: Example 2. A chemical spill of 2-chlorobutane (C4H9Cl) occurs yi = (1,042.66/1).(0.0001) = 0.1043 into a body of water at ambient conditions (25°C, 1 atm). The Percent (mol) = 100yi = 10.43 % (mol) a database for which experimental data are available. The database also served as a basis for checking the accuracy of the correlation. The solubility in water versus the boiling-point temperature is presented in Figure 1 for monochlorinated alkanes and aromatic compounds. Inspection of this figure indicates that the water solubility of monochlorinated alkanes is lower than that of aromatics, and that the curve for the monochlorinated alkanes is approximately parallel to the curve for the aromatics. The graph also demonstrates that there is a favorable agreement between the correlation and the experimental data. Acknowledgements The Texas Hazardous Waste Research Center (Lamar University, Beaumont, Texas) provided partial support for this work. References 1. “CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics”, 75th–84th eds., CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Fla., 1994–2004. 2. Donald, M., Wan-Ying Shiu, and Kuo-Ching Ma, “Illustrated Handbook of PhysicalChemical Properties and Environmental Fate for Organic Chemicals”, Vol. 4, Lewis Publishers, New York, 1995. 3. “Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals”, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001. 4. Horvath, A. L. and F. W. Getzen, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 28, No. 3, 649-777, 1999. 5. Horvath, A. L., “Halogenated Hydrocarbons: Solubility-Miscibility with Water”, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1982. 6. Howard, P. H. and W. M. Meylan, eds., “Hand- book of Physical Properties of Organic Chemicals”, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 1997. 7. Mackay, D., W. Y. Shiu, and K. C. Ma, “Illustrated Handbook of Physical-Chemical Properties and Environmental Fate for Organic Chemicals”, Vols. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, Lewis Publishers, New York, 1992, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1997. 8. Verschueren, K., “Handbook of Environmental Data of Organic Chemicals”, 3rd and 4th eds., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1996, 2001. 9. Yalkowsky, S. H., Aquasol Database, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., 1990–2002. 10. Yaws, C. L., “Chemical Properties Handbook”, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999. 11. Yaws, C. L., Yaws’ Handbook of Thermodynamic and Physical Properties”, Electronic Version, Knovel Corp., Norwich, N.Y., 2002. Henry’s law constants The results for water solubility and Henry’s law constant are presented in Table 1. In that tabulation, the results for the Henry’s law constant are based upon the water solubility and vapor pressure at ambient conditions, using the appropriate thermodynamic rela- tionships. The presented values are applicable to a broad variety of chlo- rinated organic compounds (alkanes, olefins, and aromatics containing chlo- rine) in water. The results are presented in an easy- to-use tabular format, which is espe- cially applicable for rapid engineering usage with the personal computer or hand calculator. The tabulation is ar- ranged by carbon number (C1, C2, C3, and so on). This arrangement provides ease of use — the engineer can quickly locate the desired data by use of the chemical formula. ■ Edited by Gerald Ondrey Authors Carl L. Yaws is a professor of chemical engineering at Lamar University (Department of Chemical Engineering, P.O. Box 10053, Beaumont, Tex., 77710; Phone: 409-880-8784; Fax: 409-8802197; Email: yawscl@hal. lamar.edu). Yaws holds bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees from Texas A&I University and the University of Houston. A registered professional engineer (Texas), he is the author of 26 books and has published more than 550 technical papers. His research interests include technology development, thermodynamic and transport-property data, environmental engineering and process simulation. Prasad K. Narasimhan is working on a master’s degree in chemical engineering at Lamar University. He is a recipient of an Environmental Engineering Fellowship from the Texas Hazardous Waste Research Center at Lamar University. His research interests are in thermodynamics, environmental engineering, process simulation and software engineering. He earned a bachelor’s degree at Siddaganga Institute of Technology, India. 56 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 Helen H. Lou is associate professor of chemical engineering at Lamar University (Email: louhh@hal.lamar.edu; other contact information same as for Yaws). Lou holds a bachelor’s degree from Zhejiang University, a master’s and doctoral degree from Wayne State University in Chemical Engineering, and a master’s degree in computer science from Wayne State University. Her research has been mainly in process design, modeling, optimization, and sustainable engineering. Ralph W. Pike is the Paul M. Horton professor of chemical engineering at Louisiana State University (110 Chemical Eng. Bldg., Baton Rouge; Phone: 225-388-3428; Fax: 225-388-1476; Email: pike@lsu.edu). Pike holds bachelor’s and doctoral degrees from Georgia Institute of Technology. He has won several awards and honors from AIChE and ACS. A registered professional engineer (Louisiana and Texas), he is the author of four books and over 50 journal publications. His research interests include process optimization, fluid dynamics, reactor design, ecological systems, and pollution prevention. TLFeBOOK READER SERVICE February 2005 2 options: JustFAXit! Simply fill out the form below, cut it out, and fax it to 800-571-7730. che.com/adlinks Go on the Web and fill out the online reader service card. 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Maintenance 22 Engineering 23 Research & Development 24 Safety & Environmental 26 Other EMPLOYEE SIZE 28 Less than 10 Employees 29 10 – 49 Employees 30 50 to 99 Employees 31 100 to 249 Employees 32 250 to 499 Employees 33 500 to 999 Employees 34 1,000 or more Employees YOU RECOMMEND, SPECIFY, PURCHASE (please circle all that apply) 40 Drying Equipment 41 Filtration/Separation Equipment 42 Heat Transfer/Energy Conservation Equipment 43 Instrumentation & Control Systems 44 Mixing, Blending Equipment 45 Motors, Motor Controls 46 Piping, Tubing, Fittings 47 Pollution Control Equipment & Systems 48 Pumps 49 Safety Equipment & Services 50 Size Reduction & Agglomeration Equipment 51 Solids Handling Equipment 52 Tanks, Vessels, Reactors 53 Valves 54 Engineering Computers/Software/Peripherals 55 Water Treatment Chemicals & Equipment 56 Hazardous Waste Management Systems 57 Chemicals & Raw Materials 58 Materials of Construction 59 Compressors 1 20 39 58 77 96 115 134 153 172 191 210 229 248 267 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Professional Publication Agency; 6F-3 # 103 Fen Liau St Neihu; Taipei 114 Taiwan; Tel: 886-2-2799-3110 ext 330; Fax: 886-2-2799-5560; E-mail: idpt808@seed.net.tw TLFeBOOK Economic Indicators Company / Contractor or Licensor Saudi Aramco / Snamprogetti S.p.A / USFilter ORYX GTL Limited (Q.S.C.) / Technip Italy, S.p.A. / USFilter Johns Manville Basell Great Lakes Chemical Corp. Shintech, a div. of Shin-Etsu Chemical Indian Oil Corp. / Shell Global Solutions / Engineers India Fujian Petrochemical, ExxonMobil and Saudi Aramco / ABB Lummus Global, Novolen and Sinopec Tech Merck KGaA Sitara Peroxide Shin-Etsu Handotai Air Liquide / Chicago Bridge & Iron Co. M&G Group Plant location Qurayyah, Saudi Arabia Ras Laffan Industrial City, Qatar Defiance, Ohio Suzhou Industrial Park, China Indianapolis, Ind. U.S. Gulf Coast Paradeep, India Quangang, China Poseung, Korea Faisalabad, Pakistan Vancouver, Wash. Bayport, Tex. Ipojuca, Brazil PLANT WATCH Product Filtered seawater Liquefied petroleum gas Diesel Naphtha (via gas to liquids) Pipe insulation materials Polypropylene resins Penta- and octa-polybrominated diphenyl ether Chlorine Caustic soda Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Ethylene, ethylene glycol, para-xylene, polyethylene, polypropylene and styrene Ethylene Cost, capacity Increase capacity by 2.5 million bbl/day to 7 million bbl/day $900 million; 1,000 bbl/day 24,000 bbl/day 9,000 bbl/day $100 million 60,000 tons/yr Voluntairly ceased production in lieu of "greener" alternatives $ 1 billion; 500,000 tons/yr 550,000 tons/yr 1.65 billion lbs/yr 1.3 billion lbs/yr $3.5 billion; 1 million m.t./yr 570,000 tons/yr Mixed liquid crystals Hydrogen peroxide 300-mm-dia.silicon wafers Hydrogen Polyethylene terephthalate bottle resins $10-million expansion PRs1 billion ($17 million); 30,000 m.t./yr 200,000 wafers/month 100 million ft3/day $150 million; 450,000 m.t./yr Startup Mid 2005 Late 2005 Mid 2006 Jan. 2005 End of 2004 End 2007 2009 2009 2010 1st half or 2006 2007 Summer 2006 End 2006 MERGERS, ACQUISITIONS AND DEALS Buyer Other party Date Details JPMorgan Partners (New York) PQ Corp. ( Valley Forge, Pa.) Dec. 17 JPMorgan Partners,has reached a deal to acquire privately held PQ Corp.PQ has a leading 25%-30% share of the 1.2-million m.t./year sodium silicate market in the U.S.,and has a silicates presence in Europe.It has previously announced plans to build a 40,000-m.t./year sodium silicate plant at Tianjin,China,to start up in first-quarter 2005.Terms of the deal,which is subject to approval by PQ’s shareholders,were not disclosed Sigma Aldrich Fine Chemicals (SAFC) ( St.Louis,Mo.) CSL Ltd. (Parkville, Australia) and JRH Biosciences (Lenexa, Kan.) Jan. 18 Sigma Aldrich Fine Chemicals says it has signed a deal to acquire JRH Biosciences,a division of human plasma products,pharmaceuticals,and vaccines company CSL Ltd.(Parkville,Australia),for $370 million in cash.JRH manufactures therapeutic proteins and serum products for the biopharmaceuticals sector Solvay Pharmaceuticals (Brussels) Neopharma AB (Uppsala, Sweden) Jan. 21 Solvay Pharmaceuticals has acquired Neopharma AB,as shareholders representing 100% of the company’s capital accepted the friendly takeover bid launched by Solvay last December.This acquisition,which values Neopharma at SEK 640 million (€71 million),allows Solvay to add the product Duodopa,a new therapy for people suffering from advanced Parkinson’s disease,to its product portfolio Black & Veatch Corp. (Overland Park, Kan.) R.J. Rudden Associates, Inc. (Hauppauge, N.Y.) and Lukens Energy Group, Inc. (Houston, Tex.) Jan. 17 Black & Veatch Corp.has acquired R.J.Rudden Associates,Inc.,an economic and management consulting company specializing in the electric utility industry,and Lukens Energy Group,Inc.,a management consulting group serving senior management in the oil and gas industry in strategy,risk mitigation,valuation and regulatory matters.Black & Veatch’s strategy in acquiring the firms is to strengthen its financial and business solutions toclients in the energy and water industries.Both organizations will be integrated into Black & Veatch’s Enterprise Management Solutions organization,which was formerly known as Enterprise Consulting Petrochem Carless (Leatherhead, U.K.) Jan. 20 Petrochem Carless,one of the largest independent petrochemical manufacturers in Europe,has been acquired by its management team in a deal that raised £32 million in new funds.Petrochem Carless was formed in December 2000 following the merger of Petrochem UK Ltd and Carless Refining and Marketing Ltd. Petrochem Carless supplies high performance speciality hydrocarbons,advanced automotive fluids and speciality chemicals,including automotive coolants and hydrocarbon solvents Honeywell Process Solutions, Inc. (Phoenix, Ariz.) Yokogawa Corp. of America (Newnan, Ga.) Jan. 20 Yokogawa has joined Honeywell’s PKS Advantage Program,a collaborative effort allowing third-party vendors to integrate their products with Honeywell’s Experion Process Knowledge System (PKS).As part of the program, Yokogawa will include its digital YEWFLO vortex flowmeters,EJX pressure transmitters,YVP valve positioners and ValveNavi software.Product integration will begin in the first quarter of 2005 February 2005; VOL. 112; NO. 2 Chemical Engineering copyright @ 2005 (ISSN 0009-2460) is published monthly, with an additional issue in September, by Access Intelligence, LLC, 1201 Seven Locks Road, Suite 300, Potomac, MD, 20854. Chemical Engineering Executive, Editorial, Advertising and Publication Offices: 110 William Street, 11th Floor, New York, NY 10038; Phone: 212-621-4674, Fax: 212-621-4694. Subscription rates: $59.00 U.S. and U.S. possessions, Canada, Mexico; $179 International. $20.00 Back issue & Single copy sales. Periodicals postage paid at Rockville, MD and additional mailing offices. Postmaster: Send address changes to Chemical Engineering, Fulfillment Manager, P.O. Box 619, Mt. Morris, IL 61054-7580. Phone: 815-734-1289, Fax: 815-734-5882, email: echm@kable.com. Change of address, two to eight week notice requested. For information regarding article reprints only, please contact Darla Curtis, Reprint Sales Manager, 1201 Seven Locks Road, Suite 300, Potomac, MD 20854. Telephone: 800-211-6356, 301-354-1709, Fax: 301340-3819, email: dcurtis@accessintel.com. Contents may not be reproduced in any form without written permission. Publications Mail Product Sales Agreement No. 40558009. 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FOR MORE ECONOMIC INDICATORS, SEE NEXT PAGE CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUATRLYF2e00B5OO6K9 Economic Indicators 2003 2004 DOWNLOAD THE CEPCI TWO WEEKS SOONER AT WWW.CHE.COM/PINDEX CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI) (1957-59 = 100) CE INDEX Equipment Heat exchangers & tanks Process machinery Pipe, valves & fittings Process instruments Pumps & compressors Electrical equipment Structural supports & misc Construction labor Buildings Engineering & supervision Oct. ?04 Final 462.4 533.8 507.9 508.9 607.7 377.0 722.5 355.4 584.6 311.4 438.7 346.4 Nov. ?04 Prelim. 462.5 535.1 510.8 511.6 606.8 378.7 724.2 356.1 582.5 308.4 437.3 345.4 Nov. ?03 Final 403.8 447.2 372.5 439.5 576.7 339.8 708.6 342.5 441.3 310.4 408.5 346.0 Annual Index 1996 = 381.7 1997 = 386.5 1998 = 389.5 1999 = 390.6 2000 = 394.1 2001 = 394.3 2002 = 395.6 2003 = 402.0       J FMAMJ J A SOND CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS LATEST PREVIOUS YEAR AGO CPI output index (1997 = 100)* CPI value of output, $ billions CPI operating rate, % Construction cost index (1967 = 100) Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) Index of industrial activity (1992 = 100) Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100 Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) Dec.?04 Nov.?04 Dec.?04 Jan.?05 Dec.?04 Jan.1,?05 Dec.?04 Dec.?04 = 105.6 = 1,366.7 = 81.2 = 679.3 = 177.3 = 238.4 = 144.2 = 128.3 Nov.?04 = 105.2 Oct.?04 = 1,350.9 Nov.?04 = 80.8 Dec.?04 = 680.4 Nov.?04 = 177.9 Dec.25,?04 = 236.6 Nov.?04 = 142.1 Nov.?04 = 128.6 Oct.?04 = 105.3 Sep.?04 = 1,296.5 Oct.?04 = 80.9 Nov.?04 = 680.7 Oct.?04 = 174.6 Dec.18,?04 = 234.5 Oct.?04 = 142.1 Oct.?04 = 127.9 Dec.?03 Nov.?03 Dec.?03 Jan.?04 Dec.?03 Jan.3,?04 Dec.?03 Dec.?03 = 101.7 = 1,151.7 = 78.6 = 635.4 = 143.1 = 213.0 = 137.2 = 123.9 CPI OUTPUT INDEX (1997 = 100) CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ Billions) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)                 J FMA MJ J A SON D   J FMA MJ J A SON D J FMA MJ J A SON D *To convert to 1992, multiply by 1.1514684. To convert to 1987, multiply by 1.2495478. For an explanation and additional information, call 212-621-4612. Current business indicators provided by DRI-WEFA, Lexington, Mass. MARSHALL & SWIFT EQUIPMENT COST INDEX (1926 = 100) M & S INDEX Process industries, average Cement Chemicals Clay products Glass Paint Paper Petroleum products Rubber Related industries Electrical power Mining, milling Refrigeration Steam power 4th Q 2004 1,218.0 1,245.4 1,244.1 1,224.4 1228.7 1,152.6 1,254.0 1,195.6 1,301.8 1,312.9 1,118.8 1,277.0 1,464.8 1,197.2 3rd Q 2004 1,194.0 1,218.9 1,214.6 1,197.6 1,202.1 1,126.9 1,227.2 1,169.4 1,274.8 1,289.5 4th Q 2003 1,133.2 1,153.6 1,144.8 1,132.8 1,141.0 1,060.6 1,158.0 1,103.1 1,207.6 1,230.1 1,091.3 1,250.1 1,436.6 1,169.8 1,018.5 1,178.3 1,362.7 1,101.3              ST ND RD TH 1UARTER 1998 = 1,061.9 1999 = 1,068.3 Annual Index 2000 = 1,089.0 2001 = 1,093.9 2002 = 1,104.2 2003 = 1,123.6 70 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM FEBRUARY 2005 VATAVUK AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COST INDEXES (VAPCCI) (1st Quarter 1994 = 100.0) CONTROL DEVICE3 2001 2002 2003 2nd Q 3rd Q 4th Q Avg. Avg. Avg.1 2004 20042 20042 Carbon adsorbers 105.9 106.8 113.0 134.3 141.5 145.3 Catalytic incinerators 112.9 114.5 124.0 146.6 151.5 157.8 Electrostatic precipitators 98.5 101.7 102.9 122.5 128.6 133.6 Flares 100.8 101.7 105.2 131.6 142.5 147.7 Gas absorbers 114.4 115.6 117.3 120.9 122.9 124.6 Refrigeration systems 105.8 106.6 108.8 118.7 122.6 124.8 Regenerative thermal oxidizers 110.7 111.9 113.9 123.1 126.4 128.6 Thermal incinerators 107.9 108.6 110.0 121.1 125.2 127.7 Wet scrubbers 111.8 113.2 120.1 141.8 149.7 154.4 1. Effective fourth quarter 2003,the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) converted all of the Producer Price Indexes (PPI’s) from the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) to the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS).During this conversion,many PPI’s were abolished — among them most of the PPI’s that had been key inputs to the VAPCCI’s.As a consequence,substitute PPI inputs had t be found.The VAPCCI’s for fourth quarter 2003 and subsequent quarters reflect these substitutions. 2. All third and fourth quarter 2004 indexes are preliminary. 3. Effective second quarter 2001,the BLS abolished the Producer Price Indexes (PPI’s) for fabric filters and mechanical collectors.As the VAPCCI’s for these two control devices were,essentially,their PPI’s,the VAPCCI’s can no longer be reported. TLFeBOOK Best when taken annually. INTCEonRferPencHe &EExXhib2iti0on05™ April 26-28, 2005. Jacob K. Javits Convention Center, New York Can you imagine an industry more dynamic than pharmaceutical manufacturing? The pace of change is rapid and relentless. Each day brings new opportunities, and new challenges. That’s why your annual visit to INTERPHEX™ is more important than ever. In this highly competitive, Come to INTERPHEX2005 for your chance to win a new MINI® Cooper. productivity-driven industry, INTERPHEX spotlights significant new technologies, examines critical issues and provides expert insight that enables you and your company to meet – or even exceed – performance targets. Come see the most innovative new products from 950 of the industry’s top suppliers. Make connections with qualified partners. Evaluate the potnetial of advanced technologies like RFID, ERP and XML. Find the resources to create a state-of-the-art facility–from the ground up! And get up-to-the-minute analysis of current best practices, and broaden your technical skills at the INTERPHEX Conference. Take time right now to register for INTERPHEX2005. For free exhibit hall admission and early bird discounts on conference registration, visit www.interphex.com/chemeng or call 1.888.334.8704 or 1.203.840.5648. Sponsored by: Media Supporter: adlinks.che.com/4517-02 www.interphex.com/chemeng Produced and managed by: Source Code: X1CE TLFeBOOK ,VQ WLWD VDIHFKRLFH" 1?DC CP TCJ # RW'LRCEPGRW*C 1'* LBPCQQ &?SQ &ORAPPLICATIONANDSELECTIONASSISTANCE  INTHE53CALL %.$2%33 &ORTOTALSUPPORTOFYOURINSTALLEDBASE HOURSADAY INTHE53CALL   (IGHTEMPERATURELEVEL MEASUREMENT $ISCOVERANEWDEGREEOFSAFETY 5FMRSPLCBSNRFCFC?R .EWRADAR GUIDEDRADAR4$2 ANDPOINTLEVELINSTRUMENTSARE SPECIlCALLYENGINEEREDTOWITHSTANDHIGHTEMPERATURESUPTO  & HIGHPRESSURESUPTO PSIANDAGGRESSIVEMEDIA 2FCPGEFRGLQRPSKCLRDMPRFCHM@ %NDRESS (AUSERWILLHELPYOUlNDTHEBESTDEVICESFOR YOURREQUIREMENTS'UIDEDRADAROFFERSRELIABLEMEASUREMENT THATISNOTINmUENCEDBYDENSITYCHANGES&REESPACERADAR -ICROPILOT-OFFERSNON CONTACTLEVELMEASUREMENT 4HE,IQUIPHANTISASELF MONITORING TROUBLE FREESOLUTION FORALLLIQUIDLEVELSWITCHAPPLICATIONS 7MSPQ?DCAFMGAC %NDRESS (AUSEROFFERSTHEWIDESTRANGEOFSYSTEMSFORLEVEL MEASUREMENTORPOINTLEVELDETECTIONINSOLIDSORLIQUIDS !LLTHREEINSTRUMENTSSHOWNHEREARERATEDFORUSEINSAFETY INSTRUMENTEDSYSTEMS WWWUSENDRESSCOM adlinks.che.com/4517-03 TLFeBOOK