DICTIONARY OF
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY
FIFTH EDITION
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DICTIONARY OF
ENVIRONMENT & ECOLOGY
FIFTH EDITION
P.H. Collin
A BLOOMSBURY REFERENCE BOOK
www.bloomsbury.com/reference
Originally published by Peter Collin Publishing
First published 1985 Second edition published 1992 Third edition published 1995 Fourth edition published 2001 Fifth edition published 2004
Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 38 Soho Square, London W1D 3HB
Copyright © P.H. Collin 1985, 1992, 1995, 2001 This edition copyright © Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 2004
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the
prior written permission of the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
eISBN-13: 978-1-4081-0222-0
Text production and proofreading Katy McAdam, Joel Adams, Charlotte Regan, Sarah Lusznat, Heather Bateman, Emma Harris
All papers used by Bloomsbury Publishing are natural, recyclable products made from wood grown in well-managed forests. The paper used in this book is 100% recycled and contains 20 - 25% post-consumer waste
material which was de-inked using chlorine free methods. The manufacturing processes conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
Text processing and computer typesetting by Bloomsbury Printed and bound in Italy by Legoprint
Contents
Introduction Preface The Dictionary Supplements
Nitrogen Cycle, Carbon Cycle Beaufort scale Richter scale Outline Criteria for Threatened Species Critically Endangered Species Natural Disasters Manmade Disasters
Introduction
Few things in the universe are constant over thousands or millions of years, not the orbit of the Earth around the sun, the height of eroding mountains, the distribution of boreal forests, or the abundance of a particular species. As we shift our attention from the stellar and global to the regional and local, then the more likely it is that we will encounter things that change over even short spans of time.
Dictionaries contribute to communication by providing definitions which deliver consistency of meaning. But consistency is not the same as constancy. With the passage of time, new dictionaries, or new editions of old ones, are necessary, because new subject areas develop, new terms are introduced or the meanings of words change. Examples of all of these developments are to be found in the following pages, as is to be expected in such dynamic fields of study as environment and ecology. In documenting change, dictionaries not only record developments in language and human endeavour, but also reflect the reality of the natural world.
As this dictionary goes to press it is perhaps global climatic change and the high rate of extinction of species which are the best exemplars of this. Change can be a challenge to those with an interest in ecology or the environment, as that interest rightly engenders a commitment to seek to conserve what we know and value. It can also create tensions between competing interests within the same field, as conflict between the protection of bird life and the perceived need for offshore wind farms has illustrated. But the entities we are aware of are more than features in their own right, they are also the products of fundamental processes which seem remarkably constant over time. These processes, such as glaciation, erosion, mutation, evolution, competition and decay have created the landscapes, communities, plants and animals we observe and study. As ecologists and environmentalists it is primarily these processes which we study, and it is perhaps these which we should value and conserve as much as their temporary products. This shift in emphasis may be one of the future developments in thinking in ecology and environment and a change to be recorded in later editions of this dictionary.
Dr John Harvey Secretary, Eurosite
Preface
This dictionary provides the user with a wide range of vocabulary from across the fields of environment and ecology, and also includes general terms frequently used in scientific documents and reports, as well as some more informal terms seen in the media. Words and phrases cover many aspects from contaminated land and landfill sites to climate change and biofuels.
The dictionary is designed for anyone who needs to check the meaning of an environmental or ecological term, but especially for those for whom English is an additional language. Each entry is explained in clear straightforward English and examples are given to show how the words are used in normal contexts. Quotations from reports and publications give recent uses of some words. In some cases, additonal information about a word is added in a Note, or a wider context is offered in a Comment. Irregular plurals and verb forms, and other helpful usage points are included.
Thanks are due to Dr John Harvey, Professor Graham Jellis, Judith Cheney, Steven Griffiths and Susan Jellis for valuable comments and advice on the text for this fifth edition.
A
abate abate verb to become less strong or intense ć The wind has abated.
abatement abatement noun a reduction in strength or intensity ć water pollution abatement
abiotic abiotic adjective not relating to a living organism
abiotic abiotic factor factor noun something which influences the environment but which is not produced by living organisms, e.g. wind, temperature or rainfall. Compare biotic
factor
abiotic abiotic stress stress noun stress caused by the physical and chemical aspects of an organism’s environment
abiotic abiotic stress resistance stress resistance noun resistance in organisms to stress arising from non-biological causes such as drought or salinity
ablation ablation noun 1. the removal of the top layer of something 2. the removal of snow or ice from the surface of a glacier by melting or by the action of the wind
abort abort verb 1. to stop a process or the development of something before it is finished, or to stop developing ć The flowers abort and drop off in hot, dry conditions, with no fruit developing. 2. to give birth before the usual end of a pregnancy (technical) Also called miscarry
abrasion abrasion noun the wearing away by friction of a material, especially the erosion of rock by the action of particles suspended in water, ice or wind
abscission abscission noun the shedding of a leaf or fruit due to the formation of a layer of cells between the leaf or fruit and the rest of the plant (NOTE: It occurs naturally in au-
tumn, e.g. leaf fall, or at any time of the year in response to stress.)
absolute absolute adjective 1. very great ć absolute confidence in the results 2. complete or total ć No absolute correlation with climate change has yet been established. 3. measured relative to a standard í noun an unchanging principle
absorb absorb verb to take something in ć Warm air absorbs moisture more easily than cold air. ć Salt absorbs moisture from the air.
absorbent absorbent adjective able to absorb
absorption absorption noun the process of taking in water, dissolved minerals and other nutrients across cell membranes absorptive absorptive capacity capacity noun the ability of a substance or part of an organism to take up something such as moisture or nutrients abstract abstract noun a short summary of a document ć It’s quicker to search through the abstracts than the full text. í verb 1. to remove water from a river or other source for industrial, horticultural or agricultural use 2. to take something such as gas, oil, mineral resources or gravel from the ground abstraction abstraction noun 1. the removal of water from a river or other source for industrial, horticultural or agricultural use 2. the removal of something such as gas, oil, mineral resources or gravel from the ground abstraction abstraction licence licence noun a licence issued by a regulatory body to allow abstraction, e.g. of water from a river, lake or aquifer for domestic or commercial use such as irrigation abundance abundance noun 1. a large amount or number of something ć The area supports an abundance of wildlife. 2. a measure of quantity applied to plants or animals, often based on density or frequency abundant abundant adjective occurring or available in large quantities ć a region of abundant rainfall ć The ocean has an abundant supply of krill. abyss abyss noun a very deep part of the sea abyssal abyssal adjective referring to the deepest part of the sea abyssobenthic abyssobenthic adjective referring to an organism living on the floor of the deepest part of a sea or lake abyssopelagic abyssopelagic adjective referring to an organism living in the deepest part of a sea or lake, at depths greater than 3 000m acaricide acaricide noun a substance used to kill mites and ticks. Also called acaridicide acarid acarid noun a small animal which feeds on plants or other animals by piercing the outer skin and sucking juices, e.g. a mite or tick Acarida Acarida noun the order of animals including mites and ticks. Also called Acarina acaridicide acaridicide noun same as acaricide Acarina Acarina noun same as Acarida
acceptable daily intake
2
acceptable daily intake acceptable daily intake
noun the
quantity of a substance such as a nutrient,
vitamin, additive or pollutant which a per-
son or animal can safely consume daily
over their lifetime. Abbr ADI
acceptable acceptable limits limits plural noun the upper
and lower limits within which something is
generally regarded as suitable by a large
number of people or by legislation ć The
noise from the road falls within acceptable
limits. ć The acceptable limits for such
chemicals in food and animal feed are
strictly regulated.
access access noun 1. a place of entry, or the
right of entry, to somewhere 2. the right of
the public to go onto uncultivated private
land for recreation. ı Countryside and
Rights of Way Act
access access order order noun a court order which
gives the public the right to go on private
land
access access road road noun a road that allows
only the properties on it to be reached and
is not for general traffic
acclimatisation acclimatisation
,
acclimatization,
ac-
climation noun the process of adapting to a
different environment (NOTE: This process
is known as acclimatisation if the changes
occur naturally and acclimation if they are
produced in laboratory conditions.)
acclimatise acclimatise
,
acclimatize
verb
1.
to
make
an organism become used to a different en-
vironment, usually a change in climate 2. to
become used to a different sort of environ-
ment
accretion accretion noun 1. the growth of inorgan-
ic objects by the attachment of material to
their surface 2. the growth of a substance
around an object ć an accretion of calcium
round the joint 3. an accumulation of sedi-
ments
accumulate accumulate verb 1. to collect and in-
crease ć Cold air flows downwards and ac-
cumulates over low ground. ć Sediment
and debris accumulate at the bottom of a
lake. 2. to gather several things together
over a period of time ć We have gradually
accumulated a large collection of plant
specimens.
accumulation accumulation noun 1. the process of be-
coming greater in size or quantity over a
period of time ć the risk of accumulation of
toxins in the food chain 2. something that
has accumulated
acer acer noun a maple or sycamore tree. Ge-
nus: Acer.
achene achene noun a dry single-seeded fruit
that does not split open (NOTE: Achenes are
produced by plants such as dandelions and
sunflowers.)
acid acid noun a chemical compound contain-
ing hydrogen which dissolves in water and
forms hydrogen ions, or reacts with an al-
kali to form a salt and water, and turns lit-
mus paper red
acid acid aerosol aerosol noun an acidic liquid or
solid particles that are small enough to be
propelled through the air
acid acid deposition deposition noun ‘ acid rain
acid acid fallout fallout noun an acid which forms in
the atmosphere and falls as particles, with-
out any water
acid acid grassland grassland noun a type of vegeta-
tion that is typical especially on soils that
drain freely and are low in mineral nutri-
ents, and may also occur on post-industrial
sites. The range of plant species found is
small. ı calcareous grassland
acidic acidic adjective referring to acids ć has
acidic properties
acidic acidic rock rock noun a rock which contains a
high percentage of silica
acidification acidification noun the process of be-
coming acid or of making a substance more
acid ć Acidification of the soil leads to the
destruction of some living organisms.
acidify acidify verb to make a substance more ac-
id, or to become more acid ć Acid rain
acidifies the soils and waters where it falls.
ć The sulfur released from wetlands as sul-
fate causes lakes to acidify.
acidifying acidifying compound compound noun a com-
pound that contributes to acidification, e.g.
sulfur oxides, sulfates, nitrogen oxides, ni-
trates and ammonium compounds
acidity acidity noun the proportion of acid in a
substance ć The alkaline solution may help
to reduce acidity.
acid mine acid mine drainage drainage noun water con-
taining acids, which drains from mine
workings or from heaps of mine refuse and
enters water courses
acid acid mine water mine water noun water in mine
workings which contains acid from rocks
acid-neutralising capacity acid-neutralising capacity
noun the
ability of water to neutralise acids, meas-
ured by the amount of bicarbonate it con-
tains. Abbr ANC
acid precipitation acid precipitation noun same as acid
rain
acid-proof acid-proof adjective able to resist the
harmful effects of an acid
acid acid pulse pulse noun a sudden increase in
acidity in rainwater or river water
acid acid rain rain noun precipitation such as rain
or snow which contains a higher level of
3
acute toxicity
acid than normal. Also called acid deposi-
tion, acid precipitation
COMMENT: Acid rain is mainly caused by sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and other pollutants being released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels such as oil or coal containing sulfur are burnt. Carbon combines with sulfur trioxide from sulfur-rich fuel to form particles of an acid substance. The effects of acid rain are primarily felt by wildlife. The water in lakes becomes very clear as fish and microscopic animal life are killed. It is believed that it is acid rain that kills trees, especially conifers, making them gradually lose their leaves and die. Acid rain can damage surfaces such as stone buildings when it falls on them.
acid acid soot soot noun acid carbon particles which fall from smoke from chimneys acorn acorn noun the fruit of an oak tree acoustician acoustician noun a person who specialises in the study of sound acoustics acoustics noun the study of sound, especially noise levels in buildings ACP ACP abbr Advisory Committee on Pesticides acquired acquired character character noun a characteristic that develops in response to the environment acquis acquis noun in the European Union, a set of laws that potential member states have to adopt ć an environmental acquis acre acre noun a unit of measurement of land area, equal to 4840 square yards or 0.4047 hectares ACRE ACRE abbr Advisory Committee on Releases to the Environment acreage acreage noun the area of a piece of land measured in acres acrid acrid adjective having a strong bitter smell or taste ć acrid fumes actinide actinide noun one of the radioactive elements which are in the same category as uranium in the periodic table and have atomic numbers from 89 to 104 actinium actinium noun a natural radioactive element, produced by the decay of uranium235 (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Ac; the
atomic number is 89 and the atomic weight
is 226.)
actinomycete actinomycete noun a bacterium shaped like a rod or filament. Order: Actinomycetales. (NOTE: Some actinomycetes cause
diseases while others are sources of antibi-
otics.)
action action noun 1. something done or to be done ć Appropriate action should be taken to avoid contamination. 2. the effect that something has ć worn away by the action of rain ć the action of the drug on the nerv-
ous system ˽ to take action against some-
thing or to stop something to work to prevent something happening ć The government is taking action to stop the spread of pollution.
action action plan plan noun a detailed statement of how something that needs to be done will be carried out ć an action plan for conserving species
activate activate verb to start a process or to make something start working
activated activated sludge sludge noun solid sewage containing active microorganisms and air, mixed with untreated sewage to speed up the purification process
activation activation noun the act of making something start to work
activator activator noun a substance which activates a process ć a compost activator
active active adjective 1. doing something, usually energetically, or being alert ć Kiwis are only active after dark. 2. in action or in use 3. (of a volcano) likely to erupt from time to time
active active ingredient ingredient noun the main effective ingredient of something such as an agrochemical, as opposed to the base substance. Abbr AI
active active organic matter organic matter noun organic matter in the process of being broken down by bacteria. Abbr AOM
active active packaging packaging noun food packaging that interacts chemically or biologically with its contents so that shelf-life is longer or the product is modified during storage
activity activity noun 1. the actions that humans and other living things undertake ć research activities ć The hillside showed signs of human activity. ć We saw no activity around the nest in several hours. 2. the effect that something has ć Biopesticides are being evaluated for their biological activity in a range of environments. 3. an action or movement ć volcanic activity
act act on on, act upon verb (of force) to produce an effect on something
acute acute exposure exposure noun exposure to a pollutant or radioactive substance for a short period
acute acute health effect health effect noun a health problem which lasts a short time, following exposure to a pollutant or radioactive substance
acute acute toxicity toxicity noun the concentration of a toxic substance which is high enough to make people seriously ill or can cause death
adapt
4
adapt adapt verb 1. to change to suit new condi-
tions ć People adapt to the reduced
amounts of oxygen available at high alti-
tudes. 2. to change or modify something for
special use ć The engine has been adapted to use the new fuel. 3. to experience a herit-
able change in structure or function that
makes an organism better able to survive
and reproduce, as part of the process of evolution
adaptation adaptation
,
adaption
noun
1.
the
act
of
changing, or of modifying something for special use 2. a heritable change in an or-
ganism so that it is better able to survive
and reproduce in an environment, as part of the process of evolution
adaptive adaptive radiation radiation noun the develop-
ment of different species from a single ancestor in such a way that the different forms
have adapted to suit different environmen-
tal conditions
ADAS ADAS noun a commercial research-based
organisation that offers technical advice on
agricultural, food and environmental matters to rural industries. Former name Agri-
cultural Development and Advisory
Service
additive additive noun 1. a chemical which is add-
ed to food to improve its appearance or to
keep it fresh ć The tin of beans contains a
number of additives. ć These animal foodstuffs are free from all additives. 2. a chem-
ical which is added to something to im-
prove it ć A new fuel additive made from
plants could help reduce energy costs.
COMMENT: Colour additives are added to food to improve its appearance. Some are natural organic substances like saffron,
carrot juice or caramel, but others are synthetic. Other substances added to food to prevent decay or to keep the food in the right form are emulsifiers, which bind different foods together as mixtures, and sta-
bilisers, which can keep a sauce semi-liquid and prevent it from separating into solids and liquids. The European Union allows some additives to be added to food and these are given E numbers.
ADI ADI abbr acceptable daily intake
adiabatic adiabatic adjective referring to a change in temperature in a mass of air as a result of
compression or expansion caused by an in-
crease or decrease in atmospheric pressure
without loss or gain of heat to or from its surroundings
adjust adjust verb to change something to be
more suitable or so that it works better ć
We will have to adjust the next trial to take
account of recent results.
adjustment adjustment noun 1. a change to improve
the setting or position of something ć The
brightness needs adjustment. 2. a process
of physical change in response to external
environmental changes
adjuvant adjuvant noun something added to im-
prove the effectiveness of something else,
e.g. a substance added to a pesticide to
make it stick to waxy leaves
adsorb adsorb verb (of a solid) to bond with a gas
or vapour which touches its surface
adsorbent adsorbent adjective capable of adsorp-
tion
adsorber adsorber noun a device which removes
volatile organic compounds from gas by
adsorbing them to a carbon filter
adsorption adsorption noun the bonding of a solid
with a gas or vapour which touches its sur-
face
adult adult adjective having reached maturity ć
takes two years to reach the adult stage í
noun an organism that has reached maturity
advanced gas-cooled reactor advanced gas-cooled reactor
noun
a type of nuclear reactor, in which carbon
dioxide is used as the coolant and is passed
into water tanks to create the steam which
will drive the turbines. Abbr AGR
advection advection noun a movement of air in a horizontal direction ˽ advection fog fog
which forms when warmer moist air moves
over a colder surface (land or sea) ̈ com-
pare convection
adventitious adventitious adjective 1. on the outside
or in an unusual place 2. referring to a root
which develops from a node on a plant stem
and not from another root
adverse adverse adjective 1. bad or poor ć Ad-
verse weather conditions delayed planting.
2. harmful or unfavourable ć adverse ef-
fects 3. moving in the opposite direction ć
adverse winds
adverse adverse health effect health effect noun a harmful
effect on a person’s health as a result of
coming into contact with pollutants or al-
lergens
advisory advisory adjective giving advice and in-
formation
advisory advisory board board, advisory committee
noun a group of specialists who can give
advice
Advisory Committee on Pesticides Advisory Committee on Pesticides
noun a statutory body set up under the UK
Food and Environment Protection Act 1985
to advise on all matters relating to the con-
trol of pesticides. Abbr ACP
Advisory Committee on Releases Advisory Committee on Releases to the Environment
to the Environment noun an independ-
ent advisory committee giving statutory ad-
5
agency
vice to UK Government Ministers on the
risks to human health and the environment
from the release and marketing of geneti-
cally modified organisms (GMOs). It also
advises on the release of some non-GM
species of plants and animals that are not
native to Great Britain. Abbr ACRE
AE AE abbr assimilation efficiency
AEA AEA noun ‘ UKAEA
AEBC AEBC abbr Agriculture, Environment and
Biotechnology Commission
AEC AEC abbr Atomic Energy Commission
aeon aeon noun ‘ geological aeon
AEPS AEPS abbr Arctic Environmental Protec-
tion Strategy
aerate aerate verb to allow air to enter a sub-
stance, especially soil or water ć Worms
play a useful role in aerating the soil.
aeration aeration noun the process of putting air
into a substance ć aeration of the soil
COMMENT: The process of aeration of soil is mainly brought about by the movement
of water into and out of the soil. Rainwater
drives out the air and then, as the water
drains away or is used by plants, fresh air
is drawn into the soil to fill the spaces. The
aeration process is also assisted by
changes in temperature, good drainage,
cultivation and open soil structure. Sandy
soils are usually well aerated; clay soils
are poorly aerated.
aerator aerator noun a device to put a gas, espe-
cially carbon dioxide or air, into a liquid. ı
de-aerator
aerial aerial adjective referring to the air ć Some
orchids have aerial roots.
aerobe aerobe noun a living thing, particularly a
microorganism, that needs oxygen for me-
tabolism. Compare anaerobe
aerobic aerobic adjective needing oxygen for its
existence or for a biochemical reaction to
occur. Compare anaerobic
aerobic aerobic digester digester noun a digester which
operates in the presence of oxygen
aerobic aerobic digestion digestion noun the processing
of waste, especially organic waste such as
manure, in the presence of oxygen
aerobiosis aerobiosis noun a biological activity
which occurs in the presence of oxygen
aerogenerator aerogenerator noun a windmill with
fast-moving sails used to generate mechan-
ical power or electricity
aerolisation aerolisation
,
aerolization
noun
the
transmission of a substance in the form of a
vapour or fine particles in the air
aerosol aerosol noun 1. a quantity of tiny parti-
cles of liquid suspended in a gas under
pressure, sprayed from a container 2. a can
of liquid with a propellant gas under pres-
sure, which is used to spray the liquid in the form of tiny drops 3. a quantity of tiny particles of liquid or powder which stay suspended in the atmosphere
aesthetic aesthetic argument argument noun reasoning for conservation based on the view that the beauty of scenery or nature should be preserved
aesthetic aesthetic injury level injury level noun the level at which the amenity benefits of pest control become acceptable. Abbr AIL
aestivation aestivation noun 1. dormancy in some animals such as lungfish during the summer or periods of drought. Compare hibernation 2. the arrangement of sepals and petals in a flower bud
aetiological aetiological agent agent noun an agent which causes a disease
aetiology aetiology noun the causes of a disease, or the study of those causes
affect affect verb to have an influence on or to change something. Compare effect
affluent affluent adjective referring to water which is flowing freely í noun a stream which flows into a river
afforest afforest verb to plant an area with trees
afforestation afforestation noun 1. the growing of trees as a crop ć There is likely to be an increase in afforestation of upland areas if the scheme is introduced. 2. the planting of trees on land previously used for other purposes
aflatoxin aflatoxin noun a toxin produced by species of the fungus Aspergillus, especially Aspergillus flavus, which grows on seeds and nuts and affects stored grain
afrormosia afrormosia noun a hardwood tree from West Africa, now becoming scarce. Latin name: Pericopisis elata.
afterburner afterburner noun a device which reduces pollution by burning out organic gases
aftercare aftercare noun 1. arrangements for preventing future pollution from an environmentally sensitive activity that has ceased 2. the continuing management of the soil or vegetation of an area that has been restored or replanted ć vegetation management practices during aftercare ć an aftercare agreement to restore a disturbed site
aftershock aftershock noun a weaker shock which follows the main shock of an earthquake. Compare foreshock
agency agency noun 1. an organisation or company that acts as a representative for a person or business 2. a government organisation with a specific role 3. the act of causing something to happen ć The disease devel-
Agenda 21
6
ops through the agency of bacteria present in the bloodstream.
Agenda Agenda 21 21 noun a global environmental programme and statement of principles concerning sustainable development for the 21st century, agreed in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
agent agent noun 1. a chemical substance which causes a change ć an anti-icing agent 2. a substance or organism which causes a disease or condition ć They identified the disease agent.
agglomerate agglomerate noun a rock made up of fragments of lava fused together by heat
aggravate aggravate verb to make something worse ć The effects of acid rain on the soil have been aggravated by chemical runoff.
aggregate aggregate noun 1. crushed stones used to make concrete or road surfaces 2. a mass of soil and rock particles stuck together í verb to make up a whole or total ć Ice crystals aggregate to form snowflakes.
aggregation aggregation noun a dispersal pattern of plants or animals, where the individuals remain quite close together
AGR AGR abbr advanced gas-cooled reactor
Agreement on the conservation of Agreement on the conservation of small cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas small cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas noun an agreement made between European countries in 1991. Abbr
ASCOBANS
agri- agri- prefix referring to agriculture or to the cultivation or management of land. ı
agro-
agribusiness agribusiness noun a large-scale farming business run along the lines of a conventional company, often involving the processing, packaging and sale of farm products
agricultural agricultural adjective referring to farming
agricultural agricultural burning burning noun the burning of agricultural waste as part of farming practice, e.g. stubble burning
agriculturalist agriculturalist noun a person trained in applying the principles of science to farming
agricultural agricultural waste waste noun waste matter produced on a farm, e.g. plastic containers for pesticides
Agricultural Waste Stakeholders’ Agricultural Waste Stakeholders’ Forum Forum noun a group that includes representatives of government, farming organisations, waste companies and farm suppliers with the aim of identifying and dealing with issues of waste management in agriculture
agriculture agriculture noun the cultivation of land,
including horticulture, fruit growing, crop
and seed growing, dairy farming and live-
stock breeding
Agriculture, Environment and Bio- Agriculture, Environment and Biotechnology Commission
technology Commission noun the
UK Government advisory body on biotech-
nology issues affecting agriculture and the
environment
agri-environmental indicator agri-environmental indicator
noun
an indicator designed to provide informa-
tion on the complex interactions between
agriculture and environment
agri-environment scheme agri-environment scheme
noun a fi-
nancial incentive given to farmers to adopt
environmentally beneficial land manage-
ment practices, e.g. the Countryside Stew-
ardship Scheme
agro- agro- prefix referring to agriculture or to
the cultivation or management of land. ı
agri-
agrobiodiversity agrobiodiversity noun the aspects of
biodiversity that affect agriculture and food
production, including within-species, spe-
cies and ecosystem diversity
agrochemical industry agrochemical industry
noun the
branch of industry which produces pesti-
cides and fertilisers used on farms
agrochemicals agrochemicals plural noun pesticides
and fertilisers developed for agricultural
use
agroclimatology agroclimatology noun the study of cli-
mate and its effect on agriculture
agroecology agroecology noun the ecology of a crop-
producing area
agroecosystem agroecosystem noun a community of
organisms in a crop-producing area
agroforestry agroforestry noun the growing of farm
crops and trees together as a farming unit
agroindustry agroindustry noun an industry dealing
with the supply, processing and distribution
of farm products
AI AI abbr 1. active ingredient 2. artificial in-
semination
aid aid noun 1. something which helps some-
one do something ć The computer is a
great aid to rapid processing of large
amounts of information. ć Crop sprayers
are useful aids in combating insect-borne
disease. 2. help such as food, medicines,
equipment or people offered to somewhere
that has experienced difficult conditions or
a disaster ć sent food aid to the famine zone
í verb to help or give support to someone
or something ć They were aided in their re-
search by the detailed records kept by ob-
servers. ć Changing to lead-free petrol has
aided the fight against air pollution.
7
alkyl benzenesulfonate
AIL AIL abbr aesthetic injury level
aim aim noun a goal or objective í verb to in-
tend or to try to do something
air air noun a mixture of gases forming the
Earth’s atmosphere, which cannot be seen
air air basin basin noun an area of land which has
uniform climate and geographical features
air air bladder bladder noun an air-filled sac that
helps the fronds of a seaweed to float in the
water
airborne airborne adjective carried in the air ć air-
borne particles ć airborne spores
airborne airborne lead lead noun particles of lead car-
ried in the air, causing pollution
air air gas gas noun a mixture of carbon monox-
ide and nitrogen made by passing air over
hot coke and used as a fuel. Also called
producer gas
air monitoring air monitoring noun the taking of regu-
lar samples of air to check pollution levels
air pollutant air pollutant noun a substance such as
gas or smoke that contaminates the air in a
specific place or the Earth’s atmosphere.
Also called atmospheric pollutant
air pollution air pollution noun the contamination of
the air by substances such as gas or smoke.
Also called atmospheric pollution
air quality air quality noun the state of the air in a
specific place in terms of the degree of pol-
lution measured
Air Quality Framework Directive Air Quality Framework Directive
noun a European Commission directive
that provides a framework for setting limits
for a range of pollutants, for assessing their
concentrations and for managing air quality
so that it remains within the set limits
air quality air quality index index noun a numerical scale
that indicates how polluted the air is in a
specific place
air quality monitoring station air quality monitoring station
noun
a facility that measures the concentration of
pollutants in the air of a specific place
air quality air quality standards standards plural noun legal
limits on specific pollutants in the air
air stripping air stripping noun a technique for re-
moving pollutants from water in which wa-
ter is split into minute particles
Al Al symbol aluminium
albedo albedo noun a measurement of the ability
of a surface to reflect light, shown as the
proportion of solar energy which strikes the
Earth and is reflected back by a particular
surface
alder alder noun a hardwood tree in the birch
family. Genus: Alnus. (NOTE: The wood is
resistant to decay in wet conditions.)
aldrin aldrin noun an organochlorine insecticide
that is banned in the European Union
alga alga noun a tiny single-celled or multicel-
lular organism living in water or in moist
conditions, which contains chlorophyll but
has no stems, roots or leaves (NOTE: The
plural is algae.)
COMMENT: Algae were formerly regarded as plants because they contain chlorophyll, but are now classified separately. Seaweeds are forms of algae. Algae grow
rapidly in water which is rich in phosphates and/or nitrates. When these levels increases, for example when fertiliser runoff enters the water, the algae multiply to form huge floating mats called blooms, blocking
out the light and inhibiting the growth of other organisms. When the algae die, they combine with all the oxygen in the water so that other organisms suffocate.
algaecide algaecide noun same as algicide
algal algal adjective referring to algae ć Algal
populations increase rapidly when phos-
phates are present.
algal algal bloom bloom noun a mass of algae which
develops rapidly in a lake as a result of eu-
trophication
algal algal control control noun the prevention of the
growth of algae
algicide algicide noun a substance used to kill al-
gae
algoculture algoculture noun the growing of algae
commercially or for scientific purposes
alien alien adjective same as exotic ć A fifth of
the area of the national park is under alien
conifers. ć Alien species, introduced by
settlers as domestic animals, have brought
about the extinction of some endemic spe-
cies. í noun same as exotic
alkali alkali noun a substance which reacts with
an acid to form a salt and water. It may be
either a soluble base or a solution of a base
that has a pH value of more than 7. (NOTE:
The plural is alkalis; an alternative US plu-
ral is alkalies.)
alkaline alkaline adjective containing more alkali
than acid and having a pH value of more
than 7
alkalinity alkalinity noun the amount of alkali in
something such as soil, water or a body ć
The alkalinity of the soil makes it unsuita-
ble for growing rhododendrons
alkaloid alkaloid adjective similar to an alkali í
noun one of many poisonous substances
found in plants which use them as a defence
against herbivores (NOTE: Many alkaloids
such as atropine, morphine or quinine are
also useful as medicines.)
alkyl benzenesulfonate alkyl benzenesulfonate
, alkyl benze-
nesulphonate noun a surface-acting agent
Allee effect
8
used in detergents, which is not biodegradable and creates large amounts of foam in sewers and rivers
Allee Allee effect effect noun an effect of population density on population growth, by which there is a fall in reproductive rate at very low population densities and a positive relationship between population density and the reproduction and survival of individuals
allele allele noun one of two or more alternative forms of a gene, situated in the same area (locus) on paired chromosomes and controlling the inheritance of the same characteristic
allelopathy allelopathy noun the release by one plant of a chemical substance that restricts the germination or growth of another plant
Allen’s Allen’s rule rule noun a rule that shows that warm-blooded animals from cold regions have smaller ears and legs than animals from warmer regions, reducing the ratio of body volume to body surface
allergen allergen noun a substance which produces a hypersensitive reaction in someone. Allergens are usually proteins, and include foods, the hair of animals and pollen from flowers, as well as dust.
allergenic allergenic adjective producing an allergy ć the allergenic properties of fungal spores
allergic allergic adjective affected by an allergy ć allergic to penicillin
allergy allergy noun a sensitivity to substances such as pollen or dust, which cause a physical reaction ć She has an allergy to household dust. ć He has a penicillin allergy.
alleviate alleviate verb to reduce or lessen the harmful effect of something
alleviation alleviation noun a reduction or lessening of the harmful effect of something
alley alley cropping cropping noun the planting of crops such as maize or sorghum between trees (NOTE: The trees help to prevent soil
erosion, especially on slopes, and may benefit soil fertility if the leaves are used as mulch or they are legumes.)
Alliance of Small Island States Alliance of Small Island States noun a group of states made up of islands or low-lying areas in the Pacific, Caribbean and Indian Oceans that negotiate within the United Nations to show how vulnerable they are to climate change. Abbr AOSIS
allo- allo- prefix different
allochthonous allochthonous adjective relating to flora, fauna, material or inhabitants that have moved from elsewhere to the region in which they are found. Compare autoch-
thonous
allogenic allogenic succession succession noun the estab-
lishment of different communities in a par-
ticular area as a result of external environ-
mental factors such as climatic change
allopatric allopatric adjective referring to plants of
the same species which grow in different
parts of the world and so do not cross-breed
allopatric allopatric speciation speciation noun the devel-
opment of new species which are geo-
graphically isolated from each other
alluvial alluvial adjective referring to alluvium
alluvial alluvial deposit deposit noun a deposit of silt
formed on the bed of a river or lake and car-
ried and laid down elsewhere, often on
flood plains. Also called alluvial soil
alluvial alluvial fan fan noun a fan-shaped deposit of
sediment built up by a river where the slope
of the bed becomes less steep
alluvial alluvial flat flat noun a flat area along a river
where silt is deposited when the river
floods. Also called alluvial plain
alluvial alluvial mining mining noun the extraction of
minerals from alluvial deposits, e.g. pan-
ning for gold
alluvial alluvial plain plain noun same as alluvial flat
alluvial alluvial soil soil noun same as alluvial de-
posit
alluvial alluvial terrace terrace noun a flat plain left
when a river cuts deeply into the bottom of
a valley. Also called river terrace
alluvium alluvium noun the silt deposited by a riv-
er or a lake
alpha alpha diversity diversity noun the number of spe-
cies occurring in a small area
alpine alpine adjective referring to the European
mountains known as the Alps, or to other
high mountains í noun a plant that grows
on mountains between the tree line and the
snow line
alternate alternate adjective referring to flowers,
buds, or leaves that are arranged singly at
different heights on either side of a stem,
rather than being in pairs or groups
alternative alternative adjective 1. different ć an al-
ternative means of achieving the same re-
sult 2. not traditional or conventional ć
searching for alternative sources of energy
alternative alternative energy energy noun the energy
produced by tidal, wind, or solar power, or
by burning biomass rather than by fossil fu-
els or nuclear power
alternative alternative fuel fuel noun a fuel which is
promoted as a cleaner alternative to petrol,
e.g. methanol
alternative technology alternative technology
noun the use
of traditional techniques and equipment
and materials that are available locally for
9
anabatic wind
agriculture, manufacturing and other proc-
esses
alternator alternator noun a device for producing
alternating current electricity that can be
driven by a motor, or by water or wind pow-
er
altimeter altimeter noun a pressure or radio instru-
ment for measuring vertical distance or al-
titude
altitude altitude noun the height of an object
above sea-level
altitudinal altitudinal zonation zonation noun changes in
the structure of plant or animal communi-
ties in zones according to altitude
altocumulus altocumulus noun a layer of small white
cumulus clouds at moderate altitude above
3000m, usually resulting in fair weather.
Compare stratocumulus
altostratus altostratus noun a high thin uniform
cloud above 3000m, usually seen as a front
is approaching
altruism altruism noun the behaviour of an animal
that reduces its chances of survival or of
producing offspring, but increases those
chances for another closely related individ-
ual of the same species
aluminium aluminium noun a metallic element ex-
tracted from the ore bauxite (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Al; the atomic number
is 13 and the atomic weight is 26.98.)
Am Am symbol americium
AMAP AMAP abbr Arctic Monitoring and As-
sessment Programme
amber amber noun a yellow translucent sub-
stance that is the fossilised resin of coni-
fers. It sometimes contains fossilised in-
sects.
ambient ambient adjective referring to back-
ground conditions
ambient ambient air air noun the air around a build-
ing or other point
ambient ambient climate climate noun the atmospheric
conditions surrounding a specific geo-
graphical point
ambient ambient conditions conditions plural noun the at-
mospheric conditions such as humidity,
temperature or air pressure in which some-
thing exists ć The ambient conditions are
ideal for the development of fungi.
ambient ambient environment environment noun the envi-
ronment which surrounds an ecosystem
ambient quality standards ambient quality standards
plural
noun the levels of acceptable clean air
which a regulatory body tries to enforce
ambient ambient temperature temperature noun the tem-
perature of the air surrounding something
amelioration amelioration noun an improvement or
the process of improving something ć
There has been some amelioration in pollution levels. amenity amenity noun something which makes surroundings more pleasant, e.g. a park, swimming pool or sports centre
amenity amenity society society noun a group of people who are concerned about the protection and improvement of their local surroundings amenity amenity value value noun the degree to which something makes its surroundings more pleasant ć A particular hedgerow has historic, archaeological, wildlife, landscape or amenity value.
amensalism amensalism noun symbiosis between two different species that is harmful to one but not the other amensualism amensualism noun a situation where a species is adversely affected by another americium americium noun an artificial radioactive element (NOTE: The chemical symbol is
Am; the atomic number is 95 and the atomic weight is 243.)
amino amino acid acid noun a chemical compound which is a component of proteins ammonia ammonia noun a gas with an unpleasant smell that is easily soluble in water. Formula: NH3. ammonification ammonification noun the treatment or soaking of something with ammonia
ammonium ammonium noun an ion formed from ammonia
amorphous amorphous adjective with no regular shape
amount amount noun a quantity of something ć Global warming and climate change caused by increasing amounts of greenhouse gases will have wide-ranging consequences. Amphibia Amphibia plural noun a class of egg-laying animals which live partly in water and partly on land and whose larvae live in water (NOTE: Amphibia include frogs, toads
and newts.)
amphibian amphibian noun 1. an animal which lives both in water and on land, e.g. a frog, toad or newt 2. a vehicle which can travel both on water and on land í adjective referring to an organism which lives both in water and on land amphibious amphibious adjective 1. referring to an animal which lives both in water and on land 2. referring to a vehicle which can travel both on water and on land anabatic anabatic wind wind noun a stream of wind currents which are caused by solar heating of the land and rise up south-facing mountainsides. Compare katabatic wind
anabolism
10
anabolism anabolism noun the process of building
up complex chemical substances on the ba-
sis of simpler ones
anadromous anadromous adjective referring to a
species of fish such as salmon which hatch-
es in fresh water and becomes adult in salt
water. Compare catadromous
anadromy anadromy noun a form of migration of
fish such as salmon which hatch in fresh
water, migrate to the sea and then return to
fresh water to spawn. Compare catadromy
anaerobe anaerobe noun a microorganism which
lives without oxygen, e.g. the tetanus bacil-
lus or blue-green algae. Compare aerobe
anaerobic anaerobic adjective not needing oxygen
for existence. Compare aerobic
anaerobic decomposition anaerobic decomposition
noun the
breakdown of organic material by microor-
ganisms without the presence of oxygen
anaerobic anaerobic digester digester noun a digester
which operates without oxygen ć Anaero-
bic digesters can be used to convert cattle
manure into gas.
COMMENT: Anaerobic digesters for pig, cattle and poultry waste feed the waste into a tank where it breaks down biologi-
cally without the presence of oxygen to give off large amounts of methane. This gas is then used to generate electricity. The remaining slurry can be applied directly to the land.
anaerobiosis anaerobiosis noun a biological activity
which occurs without the presence of oxy-
gen
analyse analyse verb 1. to examine something in
detail ć We’ll need to analyse the effect of
the new reporting procedures. 2. to separate
a substance into its parts ć The laboratory
is analysing the soil samples. ć When the
water sample was analysed it was found to
contain traces of bacteria.
analysis analysis noun 1. the process of examin-
ing something in detail 2. the process of
breaking down a substance into its parts in
order to study them closely ć Samples of
material were removed for analysis. ı data
analysis
analyst analyst noun 1. a person who examines
samples of substances to find out what they
are made of 2. a person who carries out a
study of a problem ć a health and safety
analyst
analyte analyte noun the chemical for which tests
are made on a sample
ANC ANC abbr acid-neutralising capacity
ancient ancient forest forest noun a forest which has
existed for many years, containing very old
trees and of great biological interest
ancient ancient tree tree noun a tree, generally in a
place where it is not surrounded by other
trees, that is of great age and biological in-
terest
ancient ancient woodland woodland noun a wooded area
which has been covered with trees for many
hundreds of years
anemograph anemograph noun an instrument which
maintains a continuous recording of wind
direction and speed on a graph
anemometer anemometer noun an instrument, usual-
ly attached to a building, which provides
wind-speed information
aneroid aneroid barometer barometer noun a device that
shows the changes in atmospheric pressure
angiosperm angiosperm noun a plant in which the
sex organs are carried within flowers and
seeds are enclosed in a fruit. Compare
gymnosperm
animal animal noun an organism which can feel
sensations and move voluntarily í adjec-
tive referring to organisms which can feel
sensations and move voluntarily
animal animal ecology ecology noun the study of the
relationship between animals and their en-
vironment
animal animal inspector inspector noun an official
whose job is to inspect animals to see if
they have notifiable diseases and are being
kept in acceptable conditions
animal animal kingdom kingdom noun the category of
all organisms classed as animals
anion anion noun an ion with a negative electric
charge
Annex Annex I parties I parties plural noun industrial-
ised countries which, as parties to the
Framework Convention on Climate
Change, agreed to reduce their greenhouse-
gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year
2000
annoyance annoyance scale scale noun a system of
classifying the amount of nuisance, harm or
offence caused by something
annoyance sound level annoyance sound level
noun the
point at which a noise begins to cause a nui-
sance or become offensive
annual annual adjective happening or done once
a year í noun a plant whose life cycle of
germination, flowering and fruiting takes
place within the period of a year. ı bienni-
al, perennial
annual annual ring ring noun a ring of new wood
formed each year in the trunk of a tree
which can easily be seen when the tree is
cut down. ı dendrochronology. Also
called growth ring, tree ring (NOTE: As a
tree grows, the wood formed in the spring
has more open cells than that formed in lat-
11
aphicide
er summer. The difference in texture forms
the visible rings. In tropical countries, trees
grow all the year round and so do not form
rings.)
COMMENT: As a tree grows, the wood formed in the spring has more open cells
than that formed in later summer. The difference in texture forms the visible rings. In tropical countries, trees grow all the year round and so do not form rings.
anomaly anomaly noun something which differs
from the expected order or range ć Any
anomalies in the results will be detected
during checking.
anoxia anoxia noun a complete lack of oxygen ć
The investigation established that the cause
of death was anoxia.
anoxic anoxic adjective referring to water which
lacks oxygen
anoxybiosis anoxybiosis noun a biological activity
occurring where there is a lack of oxygen
Antarctic Antarctic noun the area of land around
the South Pole, largely covered with snow
and ice í adjective referring to the Antarc-
tic
Antarctica Antarctica noun the continent at the
South Pole
‘About 90 per cent of the world’s fresh water is
held in Antarctica and, if it all melted, sea levels
could rise as much as 60 metres’ [Times]
Antarctic Antarctic Circle Circle noun the parallel run-
ning round the Earth at latitude 66°32’S, to
the south of which lies the Antarctic region
Antarctic Antarctic Treaty Treaty noun a treaty signed by
all countries with territorial claims to the
Antarctic continent, by which military use
of the continent and dumping of nuclear
waste are prohibited
anther anther noun the part of the stamen of a
flower that produces pollen
anthocyanin anthocyanin noun a water-soluble plant
pigment responsible for blue, violet and red
colours
anthracite anthracite noun a type of shiny hard
black coal which burns well and does not
produce much smoke
anthropogenic anthropogenic adjective caused by or
resulting from human activities
anti- anti- prefix against or opposing
antibacterial antibacterial adjective preventing or re-
ducing the growth of bacteria
anticline anticline noun (in rock formations) a fold
where the newest layers of rock are on the
surface. Compare syncline
anticondensation paint anticondensation paint
noun a paint
which prevents the formation of condensa-
tion
anticyclone anticyclone noun an area of high atmos-
pheric pressure, usually associated with
fine dry weather in summer and fog in win-
ter (NOTE: Winds circulate round an anticy-
clone clockwise in the northern hemi-
sphere and anticlockwise in the southern
hemisphere.)
anticyclonic anticyclonic adjective 1. referring to
anticyclones 2. referring to the opposite di-
rection to the rotation of the Earth
anticyclonically anticyclonically adverb in the opposite
direction to the rotation of the Earth
antidote antidote noun a substance which controls
the effects of a poison ć There is no satis-
factory antidote to cyanide.
antifoam antifoam
,
anti-foaming
agent
noun
a
chemical substance added to a detergent or
to sewage to prevent foam from forming
antifouling antifouling paint paint noun a pesticide
painted onto the bottom of a ship to prevent
organisms growing on the hull. ı TBT
(NOTE: It may be toxic enough to pollute sea
water.)
antifungal antifungal adjective referring to a sub-
stance which kills or controls fungi
antigen antigen noun a substance in the body
which makes the body produce antibodies
to attack it, e.g. a virus or germ
antigenic antigenic adjective referring to antigens
antigenic antigenic stability stability noun the condition
of an individual who has been infected by a
disease, and then remains immune to fur-
ther infection in later life. This is the case in
most childhood diseases.
antiknock antiknock additive additive noun a substance
which is added to petrol to improve engine
performance, e.g. tetraethyl lead
antioxidant antioxidant noun a substance which pre-
vents oxidation, used to prevent materials
such as rubber from deteriorating and add-
ed to processed food to prevent oil going
bad (NOTE: In the EU, antioxidant food addi-
tives have numbers E300–321.)
antipodes antipodes plural noun two points on op-
posite sides of the Earth
anti-pollution anti-pollution adjective intended to re-
duce or stop environmental pollution
anti-pollution legislation anti-pollution legislation
noun a set
of laws designed to control pollution
anti-predator anti-predator net net noun a net designed
to prevent predators from entering an area
AOM AOM abbr active organic matter
AONB AONB abbr Area of Outstanding Natural
Beauty
AOSIS AOSIS abbr Alliance of Small Island
States
aphicide aphicide noun a pesticide designed to kill
aphids on plants
aphid
12
aphid aphid noun an insect that sucks sap from plants and can multiply very rapidly, e.g. a greenfly (NOTE: Aphids are pests of some
garden plants such as roses and may transmit virus diseases in crops such as potatoes and sugarbeet.)
Aphis Aphis noun the genus of insects which comprises aphids
aphotic aphotic zone zone noun a region in a sea or lake below about 1500m, so deep that sunlight cannot penetrate it. Compare euphot-
ic zone
apical apical meristem meristem noun the actively dividing tissue at the tip of a shoot or root that produces the new tissue for growth
apomict apomict noun an organism that reproduces asexually
apomictic apomictic adjective reproducing asexually
apomixis apomixis noun a form of asexual reproduction in which embryos are formed from unfertilised ova
aposematic aposematic adjective referring to markings on an animal which are very conspicuous and serve to discourage potential predators
apparatus apparatus noun equipment used in a laboratory or elsewhere for experiments or scientific study ć a self-contained apparatus which provides a efficient and convenient method for conducting safety tests (NOTE:
no plural: a piece of apparatus; some new apparatus)
application application noun 1. a formal request ć an application for research funds 2. the act of putting a substance on a surface ć The crop received two applications of fungicide. 3. the act or instance of using an existing ability ć the application of knowledge and skills 4. a particular use ć This new technology has many applications. 5. a piece of computer software that fulfils a particular job
apply apply verb 1. to make a formal request for something ć You can apply for a research grant. 2. to put something on a surface 3. to use existing knowledge or skills ć Apply the same method as in the example. 4. (of
rules, regulations, orders, instructions, etc.) to be relevant ć The rules which apply to the measurement of wind velocities on isobaric charts apply equally to contour charts. (NOTE: applying – applies – applied)
approach approach noun a path towards something ć The approach to the site was blocked by an overturned lorry.
appropriate assessment appropriate assessment
noun a step
in the decision-making process which must
be undertaken for plans or projects which
would be likely to have a significant effect
on a site of conservation importance, so
that any unfavourable impact can be avoid-
ed
appropriate appropriate dose dose noun the amount of a
substance required to be effective, e.g. the
amount of a fungicide required to control a
disease
appropriate technology appropriate technology
noun a tech-
nology that is suited to the local environ-
ment, usually involving skills or materials
that are available locally ć Biomethanation
is an appropriate technology for use in ru-
ral areas.
aqua- aqua- prefix water. ı aqui-
aquaculture aquaculture
,
aquafarming
noun
same
as fish farming
aquarium aquarium noun a container with water
and a display of fish and other animals or
plants that live in water
aquatic aquatic adjective referring to water
aquatic aquatic animal animal noun an animal that
lives in water
aquatic aquatic ecosystem ecosystem noun an ecosystem
that is based on water, e.g. a river, pond,
lake or ocean
aquatic aquatic plant plant noun a plant that grows in
water
aqui- aqui- prefix water. ı aqua-
aquiclude aquiclude noun a body of rock or soil
such as clay through which water passes
very slowly
aquiculture aquiculture noun same as fish farming
aquifer aquifer noun a body of porous rock or soil
through which water passes and in which
water gathers
Ar Ar symbol argon
arable arable adjective referring to land on
which crops are grown
arable arable weed weed noun a weed that grows on
or near land that has been cultivated for
crops, e.g. poppy
arachnid arachnid noun an animal with four pairs
of legs and a body with two segments.
Class: Arachnida. (NOTE: Spiders, scorpi-
ons and mites are arachnids.)
Arachnida Arachnida noun a class of animals that
have eight legs, e.g. spiders and mites
arbor- arbor- prefix tree
arboreal arboreal adjective referring to trees
arboreal arboreal animal animal noun an animal which
lives in trees
arboretum arboretum noun a collection of trees
from different parts of the world, grown for
13
artificial fertiliser
scientific study (NOTE: The plural is arboreta.)
arboricide arboricide noun a chemical substance which kills trees
arboriculture arboriculture noun the study of the cultivation of trees
arborist arborist noun a person who studies the cultivation of trees
archipelago archipelago noun a group of islands
Arctic Arctic adjective referring to the area around the North Pole í noun the area of the Earth’s surface around the North Pole, north of the Arctic Circle
arctic arctic air air noun a mass of cold air which forms over the Arctic region and then moves south
Arctic Arctic Circle Circle noun a parallel running round the Earth at latitude 66°32 N to the north of which lies the Arctic region
Arctic Arctic Council Council noun the eight Arctic countries (Canada, Finland, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia and the United States) which follow the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy
Arctic Environmental Protection Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy Strategy noun a plan followed by the Arctic Council to monitor and protect the Arctic environment. Abbr AEPS
Arctic Monitoring and Assess- Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme ment Programme noun a programme that provides information on the status of, and threats to, the Arctic environment as well as scientific advice on action to be taken to prevent or recover from contaminants. Abbr AMAP
Arctogea Arctogea noun one of the main biogeographical regions of the Earth, comprising the Palaearctic, Nearctic, Oriental and Ethiopian regions. ı Neogea, Notogea
area area noun 1. the measurement of the space taken up by something, calculated by multiplying the length by the width ć The area of this office is 3400 square feet. ć We are looking for an area of about 100 square metres. 2. a region of land ć The whole area has been contaminated by waste from the power station.
area of area of low pressure low pressure noun an area in which the atmospheric pressure is low and around which the air turns in the same direction as the Earth
Area of Outstanding Natural Beau- Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ty noun in England and Wales, a region which is not a National Park but which is considered sufficiently attractive to be preserved from unsympathetic development. Abbr AONB
Area of Special Scientific Interest Area of Special Scientific Interest
noun in Northern Ireland, an area of land
which is officially protected to maintain its
fauna, flora or geology. Abbr ASSI
arête arête noun a sharp ridge between two val-
leys
argon argon noun an inert gas, which occurs in
air and of which isotopes form in the cool-
ing systems of reactors. It is used in electric
light bulbs. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is
Ar; the atomic number is 18 and the atomic
weight is 39.95.)
arid arid adjective referring to soil which is
very dry, or an area of land which has very
little rain
aridity aridity noun the state of being extremely
dry
arithmetic arithmetic mean mean noun a number calcu-
lated by adding together several figures and
dividing by the number of figures added.
Also called average
aromatic aromatic adjective having a pleasant
smell
aromatic aromatic compound compound, aromatic hy-
drocarbon noun a compound such as ben-
zene, with a ring of carbon atoms held by
single and double bonds
arrest arrest noun a sudden stoppage
arrester arrester noun a device or substance
which prevents or stops something from
happening
arroyo arroyo noun a gully with a stream at the
bottom, found in desert regions of the US.
Compare wadi
arsenic arsenic noun a grey semimetallic chemi-
cal element that forms poisonous com-
pounds such as arsenic trioxide, which was
formerly used in some medicines (NOTE:
The chemical symbol is As; the atomic
number is 33 and the atomic weight is
74.92.)
arsenide arsenide noun a compound of arsenic
and a metallic element
artefact artefact
,
artifact
noun
a
human-made
ob-
ject
artesian artesian well well noun a well which has
been bored into a confined aquifer, the hy-
drostatic pressure usually being strong
enough to force the water to the surface
artifact artifact noun another spelling of artefact
artificial artificial adjective made by humans and
not existing naturally
artificial artificial community community noun a plant
community kept by people, as in a garden
artificial artificial fertiliser fertiliser noun a fertiliser man-
ufactured from chemicals. Also called
chemical fertiliser
artificial insemination
14
artificial artificial insemination insemination noun a method of breeding livestock by injecting sperm from specially selected males into a female. Abbr AI artificial artificial recharge recharge noun the introduction of surface water into an underground aquifer through a recharge well As As symbol arsenic asbestos asbestos noun a fibrous mineral substance that causes lung disease if inhaled. It was formerly used as a shield against fire and as an insulating material in many industrial and construction processes. asbestosis asbestosis noun a disease of the lungs caused by inhaling asbestos dust ASCOBANS ASCOBANS noun an agreement made between European countries in 1991. Full form Agreement on the conservation of
small cetaceans of the Baltic and North
Seas
asexual asexual adjective not involving sexual reproduction aash sh noun 1. a hardwood tree. Genus: Fraxinus. 2. a grey or black powder formed of minerals left after an organic substance has been burnt aspect aspect noun a direction in which something faces ć a site with a northern aspect aspen aspen noun a hardwood tree with leaves that tremble in the wind. Genus: Populus. asphalt asphalt noun a black substance formed from bitumen assessment assessment noun 1. careful consideration of something to make a judgment about it 2. a judgment based on evidence ASSI ASSI abbr Area of Special Scientific Interest assimilate assimilate verb to take into the body’s tissues substances which have been absorbed into the blood from digested food assimilation assimilation noun the action of assimilating food substances assimilation assimilation efficiency efficiency noun the percentage of food energy which is taken into the gut of a consumer and assimilated through the wall of the gut. Abbr AE associate associate verb to be linked to or accompanied by something ć Turbulence is often associated with strong winds. association association noun 1. a group of people with similar interests 2. a link between two things ć They were looking for an association between specific chemicals and the disease. 3. same as biological association astatine astatine noun a natural radioactive element (NOTE: The chemical symbol is At; the
atomic number is 85 and the atomic weight is 210.)
Asteraceae Asteraceae plural noun a common and
very large family of plants with flat flowers
that consist of many florets arranged
around a central structure. Former name
Compositae
asulam asulam noun a herbicide used around
trees and fruit bushes
At At symbol astatine
Atlantic Atlantic Conveyor Belt Conveyor Belt noun same as
North Atlantic Conveyor
Atlantic Atlantic Ocean Ocean noun the ocean to the
north of the Antarctic, south of the Arctic,
west of Europe and Africa and east of
North and South America
atmosphere atmosphere noun 1. a mass of gases sur-
rounding the Earth or any astronomical ob-
ject such as a planet or star 2. a unit of
measurement of pressure, equal to 101325
pascals or equal to a height of 760 mm of
mercury
atmospheric atmospheric adjective referring to the
atmosphere
atmospheric contamination atmospheric contamination
noun
pollution of the air with harmful substances
atmospheric atmospheric lifetime lifetime noun same as
lifetime
atmospheric atmospheric pollutant pollutant noun same as
air pollutant
atmospheric atmospheric pollution pollution noun same as
air pollution
atoll atoll noun an island in warm seas, made of
coral and shaped like a ring
atom atom noun a fundamental unit of a chem-
ical element and the smallest part of an ele-
ment that can exist independently
Atomic Energy Authority Atomic Energy Authority
noun ‘
United Kingdom Atomic Energy Author-
ity, International Atomic Energy Agency
Atomic Energy Commission Atomic Energy Commission
noun
US an agency responsible for nuclear ener-
gy in the US. Abbr AEC
atomic atomic fission fission noun the splitting of the
nucleus of an atom such as uranium-235
into several small nuclei which then release
energy and neutrons. Also called nuclear
fission
atomic atomic power station power station noun a power
station in which nuclear reactions are used
to provide energy to run turbines that gen-
erate electricity
atomic atomic waste waste noun radioactive waste
from a nuclear reactor, including spent fuel
rods and coolant
atomise atomise
,
atomize
verb
to
reduce
liquids
to a fine spray
atrazine atrazine noun a herbicide used especially
on maize crops that kills germinating seed-
15
azobacter
lings. It is a contaminant of ground water
and is banned in the European Union, but
still allowed for essential use in the UK.
atropine atropine noun a poisonous plant com-
pound (alkaloid), found in Atropa bella-
donna, that affects heart rate and is used
medically to relax muscles
attend attend verb to exist or happen in connec-
tion with something else (formal ) ć Serious
consequences may attend this decision.
attend attend to to verb 1. to deal with something
or someone ć We need to attend to the feed-
back first of all. 2. to pay attention to some-
thing (formal) ć Please attend to this safety
advice immediately.
attract attract verb to cause something to draw
near ć If two magnets, with unlike poles are
brought together, they will attract each oth-
er. ć An animal may attract a mate with a
courtship display.
attractant attractant noun a chemical that attracts
an organism. ı pheromone
attraction attraction noun the act or an instance of
being drawn near to someone or something
ć The strength of the magnetic force will
depend, amongst other things, on the mag-
nitude of attraction at the magnetic source.
attribute attribute noun a characteristic or quality
Au Au symbol gold
audio- audio-
,
audi-
prefix
hearing
or
sound
audit audit noun a check on figures, scientific
data or procedures
Aurora Aurora Australis Australis noun same as South-
ern Lights
Aurora Aurora Borealis Borealis noun same as North-
ern Lights
autecology autecology noun the study of an individ-
ual species in its environment. Compare
synecology
authority authority noun 1. the power to act ˽ to
abuse your authority to use powers in an
illegal or harmful way 2. an official body
that controls an area or a specific activity ć
You will have to apply to the local planning
authority. 3. a person or body with special-
ised knowledge of a subject
auto- auto- prefix automatic or automated
autochthonous autochthonous adjective referring to
flora, fauna or other matter which is pro-
duced by the community in which it is
found. Compare allochthonous
autocidal autocidal control control noun a form of pest
control, especially of insects, by which
sterile males are introduced in order to stop
the population breeding
autoecology autoecology noun same as autecology
autogenic autogenic succession succession noun 1. suc-
cession that follows biological processes,
and can include colonisation and changes
to the environment 2. the establishment of
different communities in a particular area
as a result of biological changes, including
colonisation and changes to the environ-
ment
‘In the absence of natural ecological processes of grazing, fire and water-level fluctuations, autogenic succession tends to build dense stands of emergent hydrophytes in many wetlands’ [Northern Prairies Wildlife Research Center]
autolysis autolysis noun the action of cells de-
stroying themselves with their own en-
zymes
autotroph autotroph
,
autotrophic
organism
noun
an organism which manufactures its own
organic constituents from inorganic materi-
als, e.g. a bacterium or green plant. Com-
pare chemotroph, heterotroph
autumn autumn noun the season of the year, fol-
lowing summer and before winter, when
days become shorter and the weather pro-
gressively colder (NOTE: The US term is
fall.)
autumnal autumnal adjective referring to the au-
tumn
autumn autumn colour colour noun the bright red and
yellow colours produced in the leaves of
some plants by chemical changes as the
days shorten and become colder
avalanche avalanche noun a large mass of snow
that becomes detached and falls down the
side of a mountain
average average adjective 1. typical or usual ć of
average ability ć below average perform-
ance 2. referring to the arithmetic mean ć
average cost per unit ć average price ć av-
erage sales per representative í noun same
as arithmetic mean ć the average for the
last three months ć sales average í verb to
produce as an average figure
Aves Aves noun the class that comprises birds
avian avian adjective relating to birds
aviary aviary noun a cage or large enclosure for
birds
avicide avicide noun a substance that kills birds
avifauna avifauna noun all the birds that live natu-
rally in a specific area (NOTE: The plural is
avifauna or avifaunas.)
azobacter azobacter noun a nitrogen-fixing bacte-
rium belonging to a group found in soil
B
BB symbol boron
Ba Ba symbol barium
bacillary bacillary adjective referring to a bacillus
bacillus bacillus noun a bacterium shaped like a
rod (NOTE: The plural is bacilli.)
back back verb (of wind ) to change direction,
anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere
and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
Opposite veer
backbone backbone noun in vertebrate animals, a
series of bones (vertebrae) linked together
to form a flexible column running from the
pelvis to the skull
background background noun a set of conditions
which are always present in the environ-
ment, but are less obvious or less important
than others
background concentration background concentration
noun
same as background pollution
background extinction rate background extinction rate
noun the
usual rate at which some species become
extinct as other species develop, not caused
by the actions of human beings
background background noise noise noun 1. a general
level of noise which is always there in the
environment ć The other machines around
this device will produce a lot of background
noise. 2. (in an electronic instrument) noise
which is present along with the required
signal ć The modem is sensitive to back-
ground noise.
background background pollution pollution noun the gener-
al level of air pollution in an area, disre-
garding any specifically local factors, e.g.
the presence of a coal-fired power station
backscatter backscatter noun the sending back of ra-
diation ć Backscatter contributes to an in-
crease in albedo. í verb to send back radi-
ation ć A proportion of incoming solar ra-
diation is backscattered by air in the
atmosphere.
backshore backshore noun the part of a beach be-
tween the foreshore and where permanent
vegetation grows
backswamp backswamp noun a marshy area in a
flood plain
back-to-nature back-to-nature adjective relating to a
simple self-sufficient way of life with very
little use of modern technology. ı nature
backwash backwash noun the flow of seawater
down a beach. Compare swash
backwater backwater noun 1. stagnant water connected to a river or stream 2. the water held behind a dam, or kept back by a current bacteria bacteria plural noun submicroscopic organisms, belonging to a large group, some of which help in the decomposition of organic matter, some of which are permanently in the intestines of animals and can break down food tissue and some of which cause disease (NOTE: The singular is bacte-
rium.)
bacterial bacterial adjective referring to or caused by bacteria ć a bacterial disease bactericidal bactericidal adjective destroying bacteria bactericide bactericide noun a substance that destroys bacteria bacteriology bacteriology noun the scientific study of bacteria bacteriophage bacteriophage noun a virus that affects bacteria bacterium bacterium noun ‘ bacteria badlands badlands plural noun areas of land which are or have become unsuitable for agriculture bag bag noun a filter made of cloth or artificial fibre, used to remove particles of matter from waste gas from industrial processes bagged bagged waste waste noun mixed waste which has been collected from households and other sources baghouse baghouse noun a device for cleaning gas by forcing it through large bags which trap particulates balance balance noun 1. a state in which weights or forces are evenly distributed 2. a state in which proportions of substances are correct ć to maintain a healthy balance of vitamins in the diet balanced balanced diet diet noun a diet which provides all the nutrients needed in the correct proportions balance balance of nature of nature noun a popular concept that relative numbers of different organisms living in the same ecosystem may remain more or less constant without human interference ˽ to disturb the balance of nature to make a change to the environment which has the effect of putting some organisms at a disadvantage compared with others
17
base metal
baleen baleen noun a series of plates like a comb, which hang down from the upper jaw of some whales and act like a sieve baleen baleen whale whale noun a whale that has two breathing holes and feeds by sucking in water and then forcing it out with the tongue through the baleen, which traps plankton. Suborder: Mysticeti. (NOTE: Baleen whales
are the larger of the two groups of whales; the others are the toothed whales or Odon-
toceti.)
balsa balsa wood wood noun a very soft tropical wood, used for making lightweight models. Latin name: Ochroma pyramidalis. ban ban noun an official statement forbidding something, or saying that something should not be done í verb to say that something should not be done ć The use of CFCs in aerosols is banned. ć Importing some plants is banned under CITES regulations. band band noun 1. a strip or loop of fabric, metal or plastic ć A jet stream is a narrow band of high-altitude strong winds. 2. a narrow area that is different in colour from other areas 3. a layer of rock banded banded adjective 1. referring to rock arranged in layers 2. showing bands of colour bank bank noun 1. a piece of land at the edge of water such as a river or lake 2. a long heap of sand or snow, e.g. a sandbank in shallow water or a snowbank along the side of a road 3. a place where something is collected for a particular use, e.g. a seed bank or a bottle bank. ı bottle bank, can bank BAP BAP abbr Biodiversity Action Plan bar bar noun 1. a unit of atmospheric pressure, equal to 1000 millibars or 105Pa. ı millibar 2. a long bank of sand submerged at high tide at the entrance to a harbour, river or bay barium barium noun a chemical element that forms poisonous compounds (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Ba; the atomic number is 56 and the atomic weight is 137.34.)
bark bark noun 1. the outer layer of a tree trunk or branch 2. the cry of an animal of the dog family, e.g. a wolf or fox barley barley noun a cereal crop used as animal feed and for making malt for beer or whisky. Latin name: Hordeum sativum. baro- baro- prefix referring to weight or pressure barograph barograph noun an instrument that records changes in atmospheric pressure by a pen attached to a barometer which records fluctuations in pressure on a roll of paper barometer barometer noun an instrument which measures changes in atmospheric pressure
and is used to forecast changes in the weather barometric barometric adjective referring to a barometer barometrically barometrically adverb by use of a barometer barrage barrage noun a construction to prevent or regulate the flow of tides, used either to prevent flooding or to harness tidal power barrel barrel noun 1. a large cylindrical container for liquids such as beer, wine and oil 2. the amount of a liquid contained in a standard barrel of 42 US gallons, used as a measure of the quantity of crude oil produced and equal to 159 litres or 35 imperial gallons barren barren adjective unable to support plant or animal life ć a sparse and barren landscape at high altitude barrier barrier noun a structure that prevents something going from one place to another. ı geographical barrier, species barrier basal basal adjective 1. being the base or bottom of something 2. forming the basis of something basalt basalt noun a hard black volcanic rock basaltic basaltic adjective referring to or containing basalt (NOTE: Most volcanic lava is basaltic.)
base base noun 1. the original, lowest or first position 2. the main ingredient of something such as a paint or an ointment 3. a substance that reacts with an acid to form a salt í verb 1. to start to calculate from a position ć We based our calculations on the rate of change we observed. 2. to develop something from something else ć Field identification of plants is based on morphological characters. base base level level noun 1. the lowest level of something, from which other levels are calculated 2. the depth below which erosion would be unable to occur baseline baseline noun the point from which change can be measured baseline baseline conditions conditions plural noun (in economic analyses) the health, environmental, economic or other conditions that exist before any accidental or deliberate changes occur ć return the damaged land to baseline conditions baseline baseline emission emission noun the level of emission of a gas such as a greenhouse gas that would occur without a change in policy basement basement noun the lowest level of rock, which has been covered by sediment base base metal metal noun a common metal, e.g. copper, lead or tin. Compare noble metal
basic
18
basic basic adjective 1. from which everything
else comes ć This chapter provides a basic
understanding from which the study of me-
teorology can develop. ć The basic struc-
ture is the same for all models in this range.
2. relating to a chemical which reacts with
an acid to form a salt
basic reproductive rate basic reproductive rate
noun the
number of eggs produced per individual
over the period of a cycle, calculated by di-
viding the total number of eggs produced
by the number of individuals at the begin-
ning of the cycle
basin basin noun a large low-lying area of land,
drained by a large river system or surround-
ing an ocean ć Thousands of tributaries
drain into the Amazon basin. ć A ring of
volcanoes lies around the edge of the Pacif-
ic basin.
Batesian Batesian mimicry mimicry noun a form of mim-
icry where one species mimics another
which is poisonous, so as to avoid being
eaten
bathing bathing water water noun a seawater or fresh-
water area used for swimming in for which
specific water quality standards exist under
EU law
bathy- bathy- prefix referring to the part of the
seabed between 200 and 2000 m deep
bathyal bathyal adjective referring to the deep
part of the sea
bathylimnetic bathylimnetic adjective referring to the
deepest part of a lake
BATNEEC BATNEEC noun a principle applied to the
control of emissions into the air, land and
water from polluting processes, in order to
minimise pollution without the use of ad-
vanced technology or expensive methods.
Full form best available technology not
entailing excessive cost
battery battery noun a chemical device which
produces electrical current
battery battery farming farming noun a system of keep-
ing thousands of chickens in a series of
small cages
battery battery hen hen noun a chicken which
spends its life confined in a small cage
bauxite bauxite noun a mineral that contains alu-
minium ore
bay bay noun a wide curved coastline, partly
enclosing an area of sea
Be Be symbol beryllium
beach beach noun an area of sand or small
stones at the edge of the sea, a lake or a riv-
er í verb to come or bring out of the sea or
a lake onto a beach ć Many whales die af-
ter beaching themselves on coasts.
Beaufort Beaufort scale scale noun a scale rising from 0 to 12, used to refer to the strength of wind ć The meteorological office has issued a warning of force 12 winds.
beck beck noun a mountain stream
becquerel becquerel noun the SI unit of measurement of radiation, 1 becquerel being the amount of radioactivity in a substance where one nucleus decays per second. Symbol Bq. ı rad (NOTE: now used in place
of the curie)
bed bed noun 1. the bottom of a river, lake or the sea 2. a layer of sediment in rock ć The cliffs show clearly several beds of sandstone. í ‘ filter bed
bedding bedding noun sediment in different layers
bedrock bedrock noun the rock which is found under a layer of ore or coal
bee bee noun a flying insect with a hairy body
(NOTE: Bees pollinate some types of plant.)
beech beech noun a common temperate hardwood tree. Genus: Fagus.
beetle beetle noun an insect with hard covers on its wings. Order: Coleoptera.
beetle beetle bank bank noun an uncultivated ridge left in the middle of large fields for insects and spiders which survive there during winter and then spread rapidly into the crop in the following spring to eat pests such as aphids
behaviour behaviour noun the way in which a living organism responds to a stimulus
behavioural behavioural adjective referring to behaviour
behavioural behavioural ecology ecology noun the study of patterns of behaviour in animals
behavioural behavioural strategy strategy noun a strategy adopted by an animal as a response to a predator, e.g. attack, escape or hiding
belt belt noun a long, narrow area ć a belt of trees ı Green Belt
benchmark benchmark noun a level or standard against which increases or decreases can be measured í verb to establish a level or standard against which increases or decreases can be measured
benthic benthic adjective on or living on the bottom of the sea or of a lake
benthic benthic fauna fauna plural noun animals living on the bottom of the sea or a lake
benthic benthic organism organism noun an organism living on the bottom of the sea or of a lake
benthos benthos noun a collection of organisms living on the bottom of the sea or a lake
19
biocatalytic
benzene benzene noun a simple aromatic hydrocarbon produced from coal tar that is very carcinogenic. Formula: C6H6. benzene benzene hexachloride hexachloride noun the active ingredient of the pesticide lindane benzpyrene benzpyrene noun an inflammable substance found in coal tar, produced in exhaust fumes from petrol engines and coaland oil-burning appliances, and from smoking tobacco. It is carcinogenic. Bergmann’s Bergmann’s rule rule noun the principle that warmblooded animals from cold regions have larger bodies than animals of the same species from warmer regions, thus reducing the ratio of their body volume to body surface Bern Bern Convention Convention, Berne Convention
noun ‘ Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats
berry berry noun a small fleshy indehiscent fruit with several seeds, e.g. a tomato or a grape berylliosis berylliosis noun poisoning caused by breathing in dust or fumes containing particles of beryllium or beryllium compounds beryllium beryllium noun a metallic element. It is used in making various alloys. (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Be; the atomic number
is 4 and the atomic weight is 9.01.)
best-before best-before date date noun a date stamped on foodstuffs sold in supermarkets, which is the last date when the food is guaranteed to be in good condition. Compare sell-by
date
beta beta diversity diversity noun the number of species in a wide region Betz Betz limit limit noun the maximum power that can be produced by a wind turbine Bhopal Bhopal noun a town in India that was the scene of an accident in 1984, when methyl isocyanate gas escaped from a chemical plant and caused many deaths BHT BHT abbr butylated hydroxytoluene bicarbonate bicarbonate noun same as hydrogen
carbonate
biennial biennial adjective happening every two years í noun a plant that completes its life cycle over a period of two years. ı annual,
perennial
bight bight noun a wide curve in a shoreline bilharzia bilharzia noun 1. a flatworm which enters the bloodstream from infected water and causes schistosomiasis. Genus: Schistosoma. 2. same as schistosomiasis bilharziasis bilharziasis noun same as schisto-
somiasis
billion billion noun a number equal to one thousand million (NOTE: In the US it has always
meant one thousand million, but in the UK
it formerly meant one million million, and it is still sometimes used with this meaning.
With figures it is usually written bn: 5 bn.)
bind bind verb to form a chemical bond
binding binding agent agent noun a substance that causes two or more other substances to stick together or combine
binding binding target target noun an environmental standard that must be met in the future
binomial binomial classification classification noun the scientific system of naming organisms devised by the Swedish scientist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–78)
COMMENT: The Linnaean system of binomial classification gives each organism a name made up of two Latin words. The first is a generic name referring to the genus to which the organism belongs, and the second is a specific name referring to the particular species. Organisms are usually identified by using both their generic and specific names, e.g. Homo sapiens (human), Felis catus (domestic cat) and Sequoia sempervirens (redwood). A third name can be added to give a subspecies. The generic name is written or printed with a capital letter and the specific name with a lowercase letter. Both names are usually given in italics or are underlined if written or typed.
bio- bio- prefix referring to living organisms
bioaccessible bioaccessible adjective able to be taken up by any organism
bioaccumulate bioaccumulate verb (of toxic substances) to accumulate in increasing amounts up the food chain
bioaccumulation bioaccumulation noun the accumulation of substances such as toxic chemicals in increasing amounts up the food chain
bioaeration bioaeration noun the treatment of sewage by pumping activated sludge into it
bioassay bioassay noun a test of a substance by examining the effect it has on living organisms
bioaugmentation bioaugmentation noun the addition of microorganisms to human or industrial waste to reinforce natural biological processes
bioavailability bioavailability noun the degree to which a nutrient or other chemical can be metabolised by an organism
biocatalysis biocatalysis noun the process of a chemical reaction being aided by a biochemical agent such as an enzyme
biocatalyst biocatalyst noun a biological agent such as an enzyme that aids a chemical reaction
biocatalytic biocatalytic adjective referring to biocatalysis
biochemical
20
biochemical biochemical adjective referring to bio-
chemistry
biochemical oxygen demand biochemical oxygen demand
noun
same as biological oxygen demand
biochemist biochemist noun a scientist who special-
ises in biochemistry
biochemistry biochemistry noun the chemistry of liv-
ing tissues
biocide biocide noun a substance that kills living
organisms ć Biocides used in agriculture
run off into lakes and rivers.
biocide biocide pollution pollution noun pollution of
lakes and rivers caused by the runoff from
fields of herbicides and other biocides used
in agriculture
bioclimatic bioclimatic adjective referring to the re-
lationship between climate and living or-
ganisms, or to the study of bioclimatology
bioclimatology bioclimatology noun the study of the ef-
fect of climate on living organisms
biocoenosis biocoenosis noun 1. a varied communi-
ty of organisms living in the same small
area such as the bark of a tree 2. the rela-
tionship between the organisms in such a
community (NOTE: [all senses] The US
spelling is biocenosis.)
biocomposite biocomposite noun a material that is
made from a plant fibre such as hemp fixed
within a resin made from a fossil fuel. ı
ecocomposite
biocontrol biocontrol noun same as biological con-
trol
bioconversion bioconversion noun the changing of or-
ganic waste into a source of energy, e.g. the
production of methane gas from the decom-
position of organic matter
biodegradability biodegradability noun the degree to
which material such as packaging can be
decomposed by natural processes
biodegradable biodegradable adjective easily decom-
posed by organisms such as bacteria or by
natural processes such as the effect of sun-
light or the sea ć biodegradable household
waste such as potato peelings ć Biode-
gradable cartons can be made from potato
starch. ć Organochlorines are not biode-
gradable and enter the food chain easily.
biodegradable packaging biodegradable packaging
noun ma-
terial such as boxes, cartons or bottles that
can be decomposed by organisms such as
bacteria or by natural processes such as the
effect of sunlight or the sea
biodegradation biodegradation noun the breaking
down of a substance by natural processes,
e.g. the breakdown of activated sludge by
bacteria
biodegrade biodegrade verb to decay as the result of
natural processes
biodiesel biodiesel noun a substitute for diesel fuel
made wholly or partly from organic prod-
ucts, especially oils extracted from plants
such as oilseed rape
biodigestion biodigestion noun the use of microor-
ganisms to break down food and organic
waste
biodiverse biodiverse adjective containing a large
number of species ć a biodiverse area of
rainforest
biodiversity biodiversity noun the range of species,
subspecies or communities in a specific
habitat such as a rainforest or a meadow.
Also called biological diversity
‘Modern intensive farming is probably the main
cause of declining biodiversity in the country-
side. (Delivering the evidence. Defra’s Science
and Innovation Strategy 2003–06)’
Biodiversity Action Plan Biodiversity Action Plan
noun a de-
tailed scheme to maintain the biological di-
versity of a specific area. Abbr BAP
biodiversity biodiversity hotspot hotspot noun a threat-
ened region with a large range of endemic
plant species (at least 1500) but where
more than 70% of the original habitat has
been lost because of human activities. Typ-
ically, the diversity of endemic vertebrates
is also high.
biodiversity biodiversity indicator indicator noun a factor
that allows change in the environment over
time to be assessed. Also called bioindica-
tor
biodiversity prospecting biodiversity prospecting
noun the
process of searching among wild organ-
isms for new species or genetic characteris-
tics that may have potential commercial
value
biodome biodome noun a very large greenhouse or
similar structure with a controlled internal
environment in which plants and animals
from much warmer or colder regions are
kept in conditions similar to nature
biodynamic agriculture biodynamic agriculture
noun a view
of agriculture based on a holistic and spirit-
ual understanding of nature and humans’
role in it, which considers a farm as a self-
contained evolving organism, relying on
home-produced feeds and manures with
external inputs kept to a minimum
biodynamics biodynamics noun the study of living
organisms and the production of energy
bioecology bioecology noun the study of the rela-
tionships among organisms and between
them and their physical environment, with
particular emphasis on the effect of humans
on the environment
bioenergetics bioenergetics noun same as biodynam-
ics
21
biological monitoring
bioenergy bioenergy noun energy produced from
biomass
bioengineering bioengineering noun the use of bio-
chemical processes on an industrial scale to
produce drugs and foodstuffs or to recycle
waste
bioerosion bioerosion noun erosion or decay due to
the action of living organisms
bioethanol bioethanol noun a fuel for internal-com-
bustion engines that is made by fermenting
biological material to produce alcohol
(NOTE: Typically 5–10% bioethanol is add-
ed to petrol.)
biofilter biofilter noun a filter system that uses mi-
croorganisms to convert the organic com-
pounds of a pollutant to carbon dioxide,
water and salts
biofuel biofuel noun a fuel produced from organ-
ic domestic waste or other sources such as
plants (NOTE: Coppiced willow is some-
times grown for biofuel.)
biogas biogas noun a mixture of methane and
carbon dioxide produced from fermenting
waste such as animal dung ć Farm biogas
systems may be uneconomic unless there is
a constant demand for heat. ć The use of
biogas systems in rural areas of developing
countries is increasing.
biogenic biogenic adjective relating to plants and
animals
biogenic biogenic source source noun a plant or animal
which emits air pollutants
biogeochemical biogeochemical adjective relating to
biogeochemistry
biogeochemical biogeochemical cycle cycle noun a process
in which nutrients from living organisms
are transferred into the physical environ-
ment and back to the organisms (NOTE: This
process is essential for organic life to con-
tinue.)
biogeochemistry biogeochemistry noun the study of liv-
ing organisms and their relationship to the
chemical components of the Earth such as
its soil, rocks and minerals
biogeographer biogeographer noun a scientist who
studies regions that have their own fauna
and flora
biogeographical region biogeographical region
, biogeo-
graphical zone noun a region of the Earth
that has its own special fauna and flora,
separated from other regions by a natural
barrier or change in environmental condi-
tions
biogeography biogeography noun the study of the re-
lationship between organisms and the ge-
ography of the region where they occur, in-
cluding how they originally came to that re-
gion
biogeosphere biogeosphere noun the top layer of the
Earth’s crust, which contains living organ-
isms
biohazard biohazard noun a risk to human beings
or their environment presented by some-
thing that is toxic or infectious
biohydrology biohydrology noun the study of the in-
teractions between the water cycle and
plants and animals
bioindicator bioindicator noun same as biodiversity
indicator
bioinformatics bioinformatics noun the use of comput-
ers to extract and analyse biological data
bioinsecticide bioinsecticide noun an insecticide de-
veloped from natural plant toxins, e.g. py-
rethrum. ı microbial insecticide
biological biological adjective referring to biology
biological association biological association
noun a group
of organisms living together in a large area,
forming a stable community
biological biological control control noun the control of
pests by using predators and natural proc-
esses to remove them. Also called biocon-
trol
biological biological desert desert noun an area where
there is no life (NOTE: Heavy pollution can
turn the bottom of a lake into a biological
desert.)
biological biological diversity diversity noun same as bio-
diversity
Biological Diversity Convention Biological Diversity Convention
noun one of two binding treaties agreed at
the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro in June
1992, requiring states to take steps to pre-
serve ecologically valuable areas and spe-
cies
biological biological efficiency efficiency noun the ratio of
the productivity of an organism or commu-
nity of organisms to that of its supply of en-
ergy
biological biological half-life half-life noun the time taken
for half of an amount of radioactive materi-
al to be eliminated naturally from a living
organism
biological biological indicator indicator noun an organism
that is known to respond to specific chang-
es in the environment
biologically decomposable biologically decomposable
adjective
same as biodegradable
biological magnification biological magnification
noun same
as bioaccumulation
biological biological mass mass noun same as bio-
mass
biological biological monitoring monitoring noun the proc-
ess of checking the changes that take place
in a habitat over time
biological oxygen demand
22
biological oxygen demand biological oxygen demand
noun the
amount of pollution in water, shown as the
amount of oxygen needed to oxidise the
polluting substances. Abbr BOD
COMMENT: Diluted sewage passed into rivers contains dissolved oxygen, which is utilised by bacteria as they oxidise the pol-
lutants in the sewage. The oxygen is replaced by oxygen from the air. Diluted sewage should not absorb more than 20 ppm of dissolved oxygen.
biological biological pesticide pesticide noun same as bi-
opesticide
biological biological pump pump noun the process by
which carbon sinks from the surface to the
depths of the oceans, so reducing the levels
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
biological wastewater treatment biological wastewater treatment
noun the use of aerobic or anaerobic micro-
organisms to produce effluents and separat-
ed sludge containing microbial mass to-
gether with pollutants, often as well as us-
ing mechanical processes
biologist biologist noun a scientist who specialises
in biology
biology biology noun the study of living organ-
isms
bioluminescence bioluminescence noun the production
of light by organisms such as fireflies or sea
animals, as a result of an enzymic reaction
(NOTE: Bioluminescence is found in many
deep-sea animals, fireflies and some bac-
teria and fungi.)
biomagnification biomagnification noun same as bioac-
cumulation
biomanipulation biomanipulation noun the action or
process of changing the environment to im-
prove the survival of wildlife
biomarker biomarker noun a distinctive indicator of
a biological or biochemical process, e.g. a
chemical whose occurrence shows the
presence of a disease
biomass biomass noun 1. the sum of all living or-
ganisms in a given area or at a given trophic
level, usually expressed in terms of living
or dry mass 2. organic matter used to pro-
duce energy (NOTE: Willow and miscanthus
are grown as biomass for fuel.)
biomass biomass boiler boiler noun a device that burns
biomass as a fuel to heat water
biomass biomass energy energy noun the energy pro-
duced by burning renewable materials such
as wood or waste
biomaterial biomaterial noun a biodegradable mate-
rial of plant origin
biome biome noun a large ecological region
characterised by its vegetation and climate
and the organisms adapted to live in it
COMMENT: The ten principal biomes are: mountains, polar regions, tropical rainforest, grasslands, deserts, temperate forests, monsoon forests, deciduous forests, coniferous forests and evergreen shrub forests.
biometeorology biometeorology noun the scientific study of the weather and its effect on organisms
biomethanation biomethanation noun a system of producing biogas for use as fuel
‘Biomethanation is attractive for use in rural areas for several reasons: it is an anaerobic digestion process, which is the simplest, safest way that has been found for treating human excreta and animal manure.’ [Appropriate Technology]
biometrical biometrical adjective referring to biometrics
biometrics biometrics noun the use of statistical techniques on biological data (NOTE: takes
a singular verb)
biomonitoring biomonitoring noun the measurement and tracking of a chemical substance in an organism or in biological material such as blood or urine, in order to monitor exposure to pollution, chemicals or other hazards
bion bion noun a single living organism in an ecosystem biopesticide biopesticide noun a pesticide produced from biological sources such as plant toxins that occur naturally. ı microbial insec-
ticide
biophyte biophyte noun a plant that obtains nutrients from the decomposing bodies of insects which it traps and kills, e.g. a sundew biopiracy biopiracy noun the commercial development of genetic resources such as plants with medicinal properties or genes for resistance to disease without allowing the people or government of the area where they were originally discovered to share in financial benefits bioprospecting bioprospecting noun the process of looking for plants that contain potentially useful pharmaceutical compounds bioregion bioregion noun an area defined in environmental terms rather than by geopolitics bioremediation bioremediation noun the use of organisms such as bacteria to remove environmental pollutants from soil, water or gases
(NOTE: Bioremediation is used to clean up
contaminated land and oil spills.)
biosecurity biosecurity noun the management of the risks to animal, plant and human health posed by pests and diseases bioseparation bioseparation noun the use of biological agents such as plants, enzymes, or biological membranes in separating the different components of something, e.g. in the
23
birthrate
purification of proteins or water, or in mak-
ing food and pharmaceutical products
biosolids biosolids plural noun a nutrient-rich or-
ganic material, solid or semi-solid before
processing, that is derived from sewage as
a product of wastewater treatment and used
as a fertilizer
biosphere biosphere noun same as ecosphere
biosphere biosphere reserve reserve noun an environ-
mentally sensitive area with protected sta-
tus managed primarily to preserve natural
ecological conditions (NOTE: Biosphere re-
serves may be open to tourists.)
biospheric biospheric cycle cycle noun a natural cycli-
cal process that supports life on Earth, e.g.
the oxygen cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen
cycle or water cycle
biostimulation biostimulation noun the addition of nu-
trients to polluted waste or ground in order
to enhance the remedial activity of micro-
organisms
biosynthesis biosynthesis noun the production of
chemical compounds by a living organism
biota biota noun the flora and fauna of a region
biotechnology biotechnology noun the use of biologi-
cal processes in industrial production, e.g.
the use of yeasts in making beer, bread or
yoghurt. ı genetic modification
biotic biotic adjective referring to the living con-
stituents of an environment. Compare abi-
otic
biotic biotic barrier barrier noun a set of conditions
which prevent members of a species mov-
ing to other regions
biotic carrier potential biotic carrier potential
noun an as-
sessment of the maximum increase in the
number of individuals in a species, not con-
sidering the effects of competition and nat-
ural selection
biotic biotic climax climax noun a plant community
produced by a permanent influence or com-
bination of influences of organisms, includ-
ing people, e.g. woodland
biotic biotic community community noun a community
of organisms in a specific area
biotic biotic factor factor noun an organism that has
an effect on a specific environment. Com-
pare abiotic factor
biotic biotic index index noun a scale for showing the
quality of an environment by indicating the
types of organisms present in it
biotic biotic potential potential noun same as biotic
carrier potential
biotic biotic pyramid pyramid noun a graphical repre-
sentation of the structure of an ecosystem
in terms of which organism eats which.
Also called ecological pyramid (NOTE:
The base is composed of producer organ-
isms, usually plants, then herbivores, then
carnivores. It may be measured in terms of number, biomass or energy.)
biotic biotic succession succession noun the sequence of changes that takes place in the composition of a group of organisms under the influence of their changing environment biotope biotope noun a small area with uniform biological conditions such as climate, soil or altitude biotroph biotroph noun a parasite which only feeds on living organisms. Compare necro-
troph
biotype biotype noun a group of similar individuals within a species biphenyl biphenyl noun a white or colourless crystalline substance, used as a fungicide, in the production of dyes and as a preservative applied to the skins of citrus fruit. Formula: C6H5C6H[[SUB]]5. (NOTE: The preserva-
tive has E number E230.)
birch birch noun a common hardwood tree found in northern temperate zones. Genus: Betula. bird bird noun a warm-blooded animal that has wings, feathers and a beak and lays eggs
‘Birds are sensitive to even small climate changes. For instance the North Atlantic Oscillation – the Atlantic’s version of El Niño – has subtle effects on weather. These go unnoticed by most humans, but research shows that as the oscillation waxes and wanes, populations of larks and sandpipers rise and fall. (Climate Change, UK farmland birds and the global greenhouse. RSPB 2001)’
birder birder noun same as birdwatcher bird bird haven haven noun same as bird sanctuary bird bird of prey of prey noun a bird that kills and eats other birds or small animals bird bird reserve reserve noun same as bird sanctu-
ary
bird bird sanctuary sanctuary noun a place where birds can breed and live in a protected environment Birds Birds directive directive noun a European Union directive relating to the conservation of all species of naturally occurring wild birds birdsong birdsong noun singing calls made by birds to communicate with each other birdwatcher birdwatcher noun a person who observes and studies birds as a leisure activity. Also called birder birdwatching birdwatching noun observing and studying birds as a leisure activity birth birth noun the event of being born birthrate birthrate noun the number of births per year, shown per thousand of the population ć a birthrate of 15 per thousand ć There has been a severe decline in the birthrate.
bison
24
bison bison noun US a type of large cattle found in North America, now largely restricted to protected areas because of hunting. Also called buffalo bitumen bitumen noun a solid hydrocarbon contained in coal. Also called tar bituminous bituminous coal coal noun coal containing a high percentage of tar bituminous bituminous sand sand, bituminous shale noun same as oil sand bivalve bivalve noun an invertebrate animal with a shell composed of two halves joined at one place. Bivalves such as oysters or mussels may live in fresh or salt water. black black carbon carbon noun carbon in the form of fine particles which rise in the smoke produced by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, wood or oil black black earth earth noun same as chernozem bladder bladder noun 1. an inflated modified leaf of a plant that traps insects, e.g. bladderwort, or an inflated fruit, e.g. senna pod 2. same as air bladder blade blade noun 1. a flattened part of a propeller, rotor or wind turbine 2. a thin flat leaf, e.g. a leaf of a grass, iris or daffodil blanket blanket bog bog noun a wide area of marshy ground that may occur in lowland or upland areas (NOTE: In the UK, they occur mainly at
high altitude in the north and west.)
blast blast noun the impact from an explosion ć Thousands of people would be killed by the blast. blast blast effect effect noun a result of the impact from an explosion, e.g. damage caused blaze blaze noun a mark put on a tree to show that it needs to be felled or to indicate a path through a forest bleaching bleaching noun 1. the removal of colour by the action of a chemical or sunlight 2. a process in which coral loses its colour or loses its symbiotic algae ć There have been several incidents of coral bleaching on
reefs around Easter Island and northeastern Australia. bleed bleed verb 1. to exude blood or sap from a wound 2. to remove liquid or gas from a system blight blight noun 1. a disease caused by different fungi, that rapidly destroys a plant or
plant part 2. ˽ (urban) blight excessive
building development, or the occurrence of dilapidated and unattractive areas in a city or town í verb to ruin or spoil the environment ć The landscape was blighted by open-cast mining. blizzard blizzard noun a heavy snowstorm with wind, or lying snow which is blown by
strong wind ć There were blizzards in the highlands during the weekend. bloom bloom noun a flower ć The blooms on the orchids have been ruined by frost. í verb to flower ć The plant blooms at night. ć Some cacti only bloom once every seven
years. blow blow verb (of air or wind) to move ć The sea breeze may blow almost parallel to the
coast. blow-by blow-by noun unburnt fuel mixed with air and other gases that escapes past the piston rings in an internal combustion engine blowhole blowhole noun 1. a hole in the roof of a cave by the sea, leading to the surface of the cliff above, through which air and water are sent out by the pressure of the waves breaking beneath 2. the nostril of a cetacean such as a whale, situated towards the back of the skull, through which the whale releases air and water blowout blowout noun a sudden rush of oil or gas from an oil well blubber blubber noun fat lying in a thick layer under the skin of marine animals such as whales blue blue flag beach flag beach noun a beach with sea water that meets the cleanliness requirements of the European Commission and has been awarded the symbol of a blue flag blue-green blue-green alga alga noun ‘ cyanobacterium blue blue whale whale noun a large whale with no teeth, which feeds by straining large amounts of water through its baleen and so retaining plankton and other food board board of inquiry of inquiry noun a group of people who carry out a formal investigation when there has been an accident, or something has gone wrong BOAT BOAT abbr byway open to all traffic BOD BOD abbr 1. biochemical oxygen demand 2. biological oxygen demand ć The main aim of sewage treatment is to reduce the
BOD of the liquid. body body burden burden noun the amount of a chemical contained in a human or animal body bog bog noun soft wet land, usually with moss growing on it, which does not decompose, but forms a thick layer of acid peat (NOTE: The mosses that grow on bogs live on the
nutrients that fall in rain.)
boggy boggy adjective soft and wet like a bog bogland bogland noun an area of bog boil boil verb to heat a liquid until it reaches a temperature at which it changes into gas bole bole noun the wide base of a tree trunk
25
Br
bond bond noun same as chemical bond í verb 1. (of two substances) to link together ć Adsorption is the bonding of a gas to a solid surface. 2. (of atoms) to form a chemical bond
bone bone noun 1. one of the calcified pieces of connective tissue which make up the skeleton, e.g. a leg bone 2. a hard substance of which the parts of the skeleton are formed
bonemeal bonemeal noun a fertiliser made of ground bones or horns, reduced to a fine powder
boom boom noun a sudden loud noise, especially one caused by an aircraft travelling at speeds greater than the speed of sound
boom boom town town noun a town where the population and number of buildings is increasing very quickly, or a town where business is thriving ć The oil industry has turned this once sleepy port into a boom town.
booster booster noun a device which increases the force or amount of something
Bordeaux Bordeaux mixture mixture noun a mixture of copper sulfate, lime and water, used to spray on plants to prevent infection by fungi
bore bore noun 1. a measurement across the inside of a pipe or hole ć The central heating uses small-bore copper piping. ć The well has a 2-metre bore. 2. a tidal wave which rushes up the estuary of a river at high tide í verb to make a round hole in the ground ć They have bored six test holes to try to find water.
boreal boreal adjective referring to the climate in the northern hemisphere between 60º and 40° N with short hot summers and longer cold winters
boreal boreal forest forest noun a forest in the tundra areas around the North Pole, consisting primarily of black spruce and white spruce trees with balsam fir, birch and aspen
boreal boreal region region noun one of the biogeographical regions of Europe, in the north east between the Arctic and the continental region
borehole borehole noun 1. a hole bored deep into the ground to survey for the presence of oil, gas or water, or to establish the nature of ground structure ć The borehole is intended to test the geology of the site to see what sort of foundation the building will need. 2. a hole bored into the water table for the extraction of water ć Boreholes supply water of excellent quality.
-borne -borne suffix carried by ć wind-borne pollen of grasses
boron boron noun a chemical element. It is es-
sential as a trace element for healthy plant
growth. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is B;
the atomic number is 5 and the atomic
weight is 10.81.)
botanic botanic
,
botanical
adjective
referring
to
botany
botanical botanical garden garden, botanic garden
noun a place where plants are grown for
showing to the public and for scientific
study
botanical botanical horticulture horticulture noun the activ-
ity of growing different species of plants to
study and maintain them
botanical botanical insecticide insecticide noun an insecti-
cide made from a substance extracted from
plants, e.g. pyrethrum, derived from chry-
santhemums, or nicotine, derived from to-
bacco plants
botanical botanical specimen specimen noun a plant col-
lected for study
botanist botanist noun someone who studies
plants as a scientific or leisure activity
botany botany noun the study of plants as a sci-
entific or leisure activity
bottle bottle bank bank noun a large container into
which people put empty glass bottles and
jars which can then be recycled into new
glass
bottled bottled gas gas noun a gas produced from
refining crude oil and sold in pressurised
metal containers for use in domestic cook-
ing or heating, or as vehicle fuel
bottom bottom noun 1. the floor of a sea, lake or
river 2. a flat area along a river where silt is
deposited when the river floods
bottom bottom feeder feeder noun an organism such
as a fish which collects food on the bottom
or in the deepest water of the sea, a lake or
river
bottom-up bottom-up control control noun the system of
regulation of trophic levels by which the
abundance of individuals in the higher
trophic levels is determined by factors in
the lower levels. Compare top-down con-
trol
boulder boulder noun a large rounded piece of
rock
Bovidae Bovidae plural noun the largest class of
even-toed ungulates, including cattle, ante-
lopes, gazelles, sheep and goats
bovine bovine adjective referring to cattle
bovine spongiform encephalopa- bovine spongiform encephalopathy
thy noun full form of BSE
Bq Bq symbol becquerel
Br Br symbol bromine
bracken
26
bracken bracken noun a tall fern with large triangular fronds that grows on hillsides and in woodland. Latin name: Pteridium aquilinum. (NOTE: no plural)
brackish brackish adjective referring to water which contains some salt, though less than seawater, and is not good to drink
bract bract noun a small green leaf at the base of a flower or flowering stem
braided braided river river noun a river that is divided into a pattern of many channels with small areas of dry land between them
braiding braiding noun the process of a river becoming divided into many channels with small areas of dry land between them
bran bran noun the outside covering of a cereal grain (NOTE: It is removed from wheat in
making white flour, but is an important source of roughage in the human diet and is used in muesli and other breakfast cereals.)
branch branch noun 1. a woody stem growing out from the main trunk of a tree 2. a subdivision of something larger 3. a smaller stream separating from but still forming part of a river
brass brass noun an alloy of copper and zinc
Brassicaceae Brassicaceae noun a family of common plants, including cabbage, whose flowers have four petals. Former name Cruciferae
breakdown breakdown noun 1. a failure of a system or organisation 2. the separation of a substance into its component parts
breakthrough breakthrough noun a situation occurring when sewage or other pollutants get into the main domestic water supply
breakwater breakwater noun a stone or wooden structure that is built out from the shore into the sea in order to block the force of waves and so prevent erosion
breccia breccia noun a type of rough rock made of sharp fragments of other rocks fused together
breed breed noun a group of organisms of a specific species which have been developed by people over a period of time for desirable characteristics ć a hardy breed of sheep ć Two new breeds of rice have been developed. í verb 1. (of organisms) to produce young ć Rabbits breed very rapidly. 2. to encourage something to develop ć Insanitary conditions help to breed disease. 3. to produce an improved animal or plant by crossing two parent animals or plants showing the desired characteristics ć Farmers have bred new hardy forms of sheep. ˽ to breed true to reproduce all the
characteristics of the type in the next gener-
ation ć F1 hybrids do not breed true. breeder breeder noun a person who breeds new
forms of animals or plants ć a cat breeder
ć a cattle breeder ć a rose breeder ć a
plant breeder
breeding breeding noun the crossing of different
plants or animals to produce offspring with
desirable characteristics
breeding breeding bird bird noun a bird that is actively
reproducing in a specific place at a specific
time
Breeding Breeding Bird Survey Bird Survey noun an ongo-
ing assessment of breeding birds conducted
by the British Trust for Ornithology, JNCC
and RSPB
breeding breeding ground ground noun an area where
birds or animals come each year to breed
breeding breeding pair pair noun two animals, espe-
cially birds, that have established a mating
relationship with each other
breeding breeding season season noun the time of year
when organisms produce offspring
breeze breeze noun 1. a light wind 2. the solid
waste of burnt coal or other material pro-
duced by a furnace
bridle bridle path path, bridle way noun a track
along which a horse can be ridden
British British thermal unit thermal unit noun the amount
of heat needed to raise the temperature of
one pound of water by one degree Fahren-
heit (NOTE: Its approximate SI equivalent is
1055 joules.)
British Trust for Ornithology British Trust for Ornithology
noun
an independent scientific research trust that
investigates the populations, movements
and ecology of wild birds in the British
Isles. Abbr BTO
broad broad noun a river that has spreads to cov-
er low-lying land
broadacre broadacre agriculture agriculture noun the large-
scale cultivation of field crops
broadleaf broadleaf
,
broadleaf
tree
noun
a
decid-
uous tree that has wide leaves, e.g. beech or
oak. Compare conifer
broadleaved broadleaved adjective (of a tree) having
wide leaves rather than needles. Compare
coniferous
broadleaved broadleaved evergreen evergreen noun an ever-
green tree or shrub with wide leaves, e.g.
rhododendron or laurel
broadleaved broadleaved forest forest, broadleaved
woodland noun an area of wooded land
consisting of more than 75% of broad-
leaved trees
broad-spectrum broad-spectrum adjective referring to
an antibiotic or pesticide which kills or
controls many types of organism
27
building permit
‘Broad-spectrum pesticides often control both pest and natural enemies removing the benefits of biological control. Often, pesticides are applied just after damage or infestations are identified. Such treatments will prevent beneficial pests from multiplying to populations that will significantly reduce pest numbers. (Pest Management in cereals and oilseed rape – a guide. HGCA 2003)’
bromine bromine noun a chemical element. It is used in various industrial processes and in antiknock additives for petrol. (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Br; the atomic number is 35 and the atomic weight is 79.90.)
brood brood noun a group of offspring produced at the same time, especially a group of young birds ć The territory provides enough food for two adults and a brood of six or eight young. brooding brooding time time noun the length of time a bird sits on its eggs to hatch them out brook brook noun a little stream brown brown adjective 1. of a colour like the colour of earth or wood 2. not produced from renewable sources brown brown earth earth noun good fertile soil, slightly acid and containing humus brownfields brownfields plural noun vacant industrial land that was formerly developed brownfield brownfield site site noun a development site that is in a town and formerly had buildings on it, preferred for building development to open fields. Compare greenfield site brown brown fumes fumes plural noun fumes from tarry substances produced by coal burning at low temperatures. Also called brown
smoke
brownlands brownlands plural noun areas of land for development that have been previously developed but are currently unused brown brown smoke smoke noun ‘ brown fumes browse browse verb to feed on plant material, especially the leaves of woody plants, which is not growing close to the ground. Compare graze brucellosis brucellosis noun a disease which can be caught from cattle or goats or from drinking infected milk, spread by a species of the bacterium Brucella brushwood brushwood noun undergrowth with twigs and small branches bryophyte bryophyte noun a non-flowering plant, frequently growing in damp places, with separate gamete- and spore-bearing forms, e.g. moss. Division: Bryophyta. BSE BSE noun a fatal brain disease of cattle. Also called mad cow disease. Full form
bovine spongiform encephalopathy
BTO BTO abbr British Trust for Ornithology
bud bud noun a young shoot on a plant, which may later become a leaf or flower budding budding noun a way of propagating plants in which a bud from one plant is grafted onto another plant
buffalo buffalo noun 1. a common domestic animal in tropical countries, used for milk and also as a draught animal 2. US same as bi-
son
buffer buffer noun a solution in which the pH is not changed by adding acid or alkali í verb to prevent a solution from becoming acid or alkaline ć If a lake is well buffered, it will not have a low pH factor, even if acid rain falls into it. ć Bicarbonate is the main buffering factor in fresh water. buffer buffer land land, buffer zone noun land between a protected area such as a nature reserve and the surrounding countryside or town bug bug noun 1. an insect (informal ) 2. a winged insect belonging to the class Hemiptera
build build verb to make a construction ć The developer is planning to build 2500 new houses on the greenfield site. ć The female birds build nests of straw in holes in trees.
building building noun 1. a construction such as a house, shop or office ć modern buildings with good insulation 2. the process of constructing something ć permission for building on the site
building building area area noun an area of land on which building may take place or is taking place. Also called building zone
building building certificate certificate noun an official document allowing a person or company to build a property. Also called building per-
mit
building building control control noun a system for regulating the design of buildings, especially for the safety and health of the occupants
building building density density noun a number of buildings allowed on a specific area of land, e.g. fifteen houses to the acre
building building development development noun an area of land on which building is taking or has taken place ć The company is planning a new building development of 1500 homes.
building building ground ground, building land noun an area of land suitable for or with permission for building on building building legislation legislation noun the set of laws controlling all aspects of putting up new buildings or altering existing buildings
building building permit permit noun same as building
certificate
building-related illness
28
building-related illness building-related illness
noun an ill-
ness that can be traced to a specific pollut-
ant or source within a building (NOTE: Le-
gionnaires’ disease is a building-related ill-
ness.)
building building site site noun an area of land on
which building is taking place
building building zone zone noun same as building
area
build build up up verb 1. to form by accumulation
ć The pesticide gradually built up in the
food chain. 2. to develop gradually ć Traf-
fic has built up over the last five years.
build-up build-up noun a gradual accumulation ć
a build-up of DDT in the food chain ć a
build-up of static electricity
built built environment environment noun the buildings,
roads and other structures made by people
and in which they live, work or travel.
Compare natural environment
built built heritage heritage noun the part of a coun-
try’s historic resources that consists of
buildings and structures, as opposed to nat-
ural assets
built-up built-up area area noun an area which has
many houses, shops, offices and other
buildings, with very little open space
bulb bulb noun an underground plant organ of
fleshy scale leaves and buds. It can be
planted and will produce flowers and seed.
bulk bulk noun a large quantity of something ˽
in bulk in large quantities
bulking bulking agent agent noun an additive which
causes a substance to stick together as a
mass
bulk bulk plant plant noun a factory which produc-
es something in large quantities
bund bund noun a soil wall built across a slope
to retain water or to hold waste in a sloping
landfill site
bunding bunding noun the formation of bunds
‘Farmers have traditionally relied on a system of
bunding to grow sorghum in the area’s semi-arid
soil.’ [New Scientist]
burial burial site site noun 1. a place where nuclear
waste is buried 2. a place where animals
that have died from an infectious disease
such as foot and mouth disease are buried
burn burn noun 1. an injury to skin and tissue
caused by light, heat, radiation, electricity
or a chemical 2. in Scotland, a small stream
í verb 1. to destroy or damage something
by fire ć Several hundred hectares of forest
were burnt in the fire. ı slash and burn ag-
riculture 2. to use fuel or food to produce
energy ć Swimming will help you burn cal-
ories.
burner burner noun a device for burning some-
thing such as fuel or waste
burner burner reactor reactor noun a type of nuclear
reactor in which fuel such as uranium-239
is used to generate heat by fission
burning burning noun 1. the act or process of de-
stroying or damaging something by fire 2.
the process of burning something such as
fuel or waste
burn-up burn-up noun the amount of fuel burnt in
a nuclear reactor, shown as a proportion of
the fuel originally used
bush bush noun 1. a plant with many woody
stems ć a coffee bush ć a rose bush 2. in
semiarid regions, natural land covered with
bushes and small trees
bush-fallow bush-fallow noun a form of subsistence
agriculture in which land is cultivated for a
few years until its natural fertility is ex-
hausted, then allowed to rest for a long pe-
riod during which the natural vegetation re-
grows, after which the land is cleared and
cultivated again
business business park park noun an area of land with
buildings specially designed and construct-
ed for business premises, light industries or
science
butane butane noun a gas produced during petro-
leum distillation, used domestically for
heating and sold in special containers as
bottled gas. Formula: C4H10. butterfly butterfly noun a flying insect with large,
often colourful wings
butterwort butterwort noun an insectivorous plant
that grows in bogs. Genus: Pinguicula.
butylated hydroxytoluene butylated hydroxytoluene
noun a
common antioxidant additive (E321) used
in processed foods containing fat. It may be
carcinogenic. Abbr BHT
by-catch by-catch noun fish or sea mammals
caught during fishing but not required and
thrown back dead into the sea ć By-catch is
a major environmental problem as it in-
volves the uncontrolled destruction of pop-
ulations.
by-pass by-pass noun a road built around a town,
to relieve traffic congestion ć Since the by-
pass was built, traffic in the town has been
reduced by half.
by-product by-product noun something additional
produced during a process
byway byway noun a small country road or track
byway open to all traffic byway open to all traffic
noun a road
mainly used by the public as a footpath or
bridleway on which vehicles are allowed.
Abbr BOAT
C
CC symbol 1. carbon 2. Celsius
C3 C3 plant plant noun a plant found in temperate
regions in which photosynthesis levels off
at high light intensities
C4 C4 plant plant noun a plant, usually found in
hot dry regions, which is efficient at photo-
synthesis at high light intensities
Ca Ca symbol calcium
CA CA abbr Countryside Agency
cactus cactus noun a succulent plant with a
fleshy stem often protected by spines,
found in the deserts of North and Central
America (NOTE: The plural is cacti or cac-
tuses.)
cadmium cadmium noun a metallic element natu-
rally present in soil and rock in association
with zinc (NOTE: The chemical symbol is
Cd; the atomic number is 48 and the atomic
weight is 112.40.)
caducous caducous adjective referring to a part of
a plant or animal which becomes detached
during the organism’s life
caesium caesium noun a metallic alkali element
which is one of the main radioactive pollut-
ants taken up by fish (NOTE: The chemical
symbol is Cs; the atomic number is 55 and
the atomic weight is 132.91.)
cal cal symbol calorie
calcareous calcareous adjective referring to a
chalky soil that contains calcium or to a
rock such as chalk or limestone that con-
tains calcium
calcareous calcareous grassland grassland noun the type
of vegetation such as grasses that is typical
on chalk soil. ı acid grassland
calcicole calcicole
,
calcicolous
plant
noun
a
plant which grows well on chalky or alka-
line soils. Also called calciphile
calcification calcification noun the process of hard-
ening by forming deposits of calcium salts
calcified calcified adjective made hard ć Bone is
calcified connective tissue.
calcifuge calcifuge noun a plant which prefers acid
soils and does not grow on chalky or alka-
line soils. Also called calciphobe
calcimorphic calcimorphic soil soil noun soil which is
rich in lime
calcination calcination noun the heating of some-
thing such as a gas at high temperature in
the production of metal oxides
calciphile calciphile noun same as calcicole calciphobe calciphobe noun same as calcifuge calcium calcium noun a metallic chemical element naturally present in limestone and chalk. It is essential for biological processes. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Ca; the
atomic number is 20 and atomic weight is
40.08.)
calcium calcium carbonate carbonate noun a white insoluble solid formed from animal organisms that is naturally abundant and is found in chalk, limestone and marble. It is used in the production of cement, paint and toothpaste. Formula: CaCO3. calcium calcium phosphate phosphate noun the main constituent of bones and bone ash fertiliser. Formula: (Ca3(Po4)2. calibrate calibrate verb to make a scale on a measuring instrument calm calm noun a period when there is no wind at all caloric caloric adjective referring to calories calorie calorie noun a unit of measurement of heat or energy. Symbol cal (NOTE: The
joule, an SI measure, is now more usual: 1 calorie = 4.186 joules.)
calorific calorific value value noun same as energy
value
calyx calyx noun the part of a flower made up of green sepals which cover the flower when it is in bud (NOTE: The plural is calyces.) camouflage camouflage noun the natural concealment of an animal’s shape by colours or patterns ć The stripes on the zebra are a form of camouflage which makes the animal difficult to see in long grass. í verb to hide the shape of an animal or object by using colours or patterns on the skin or exterior canal canal noun 1. a waterway made by people for boats to travel along 2. a waterway made by people to take water to irrigate land can can bank bank noun a large container in a public place into which people can put their empty metal food containers for collection and recycling candela candela noun an SI unit measuring the brightness of a light. Symbol cd canker canker noun 1. a disease causing lesions on a plant or on the skin of an animal ć a
cankered
30
bacterial canker of fruit trees 2. an area of damage caused by canker ć cankers on the stem
cankered cankered adjective (of skin or plant tissue) having areas of damage caused by canker
canopy canopy noun a layer of branches and leaves of trees which shade the ground underneath
‘Trees that grow to form the tallest part of the canopy suffer more damage than the slower growing trees forming the understorey.’ [Guardian]
canopy canopy cover cover noun the percentage of the surface of the ground which is shaded by the leaves and branches of trees
canyon canyon noun a deep valley with steep sides
cap cap noun a part of the dome-shaped structure of some fungi which bears spores on its lower surface
CAP CAP abbr Common Agricultural Policy
capacity capacity noun 1. the ability to do something easily ć the capacity to conserve the woodland 2. the amount of something which a container can hold ć Each cylinder has a capacity of 0.5 litres.
capillarity capillarity noun same as capillary ac-
tion
capillary capillary noun a narrow tube carrying a liquid
capillary capillary action action, capillary flow noun the movement of a liquid upwards inside a narrow tube or upwards through the soil
capillary capillary pore pore noun a space in the soil through which water flows towards a root
capsid capsid bug bug noun a tiny insect that sucks the sap of plants
capsular capsular adjective referring to a capsule
capsule capsule noun 1. a dry structure which bursts open with force releasing the seeds of flowering plants or spores of mosses 2. a membrane round an organ
captive captive breeding breeding noun the breeding of threatened species in zoos, usually with the intention of later releasing them into the wild
carbamate carbamate noun a pesticide belonging to a large group used as insecticides, herbicides and fungicides
carbohydrate carbohydrate noun an organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, e.g. sugars, cellulose and starch
carbon carbon noun a common non-metallic element that is an essential component of living matter and organic chemical compounds (NOTE: The chemical symbol is C;
the atomic number is 6 and the atomic
weight is 12.01.)
carbon-14 carbon-14 dating dating noun same as carbon
dating
carbonaceous carbonaceous adjective referring to
rock which is rich in hydrocarbons, e.g.
coal
carbonate carbonate noun a compound formed
from a base and carbonic acid í verb to add
carbon dioxide to a drink to make it fizzy
carbonation carbonation noun the addition of carbon
dioxide to a drink to make it fizzy
carbon carbon cycle cycle noun the circulation of
carbon, by which carbon atoms from car-
bon dioxide are incorporated into organic
compounds in plants during photosynthe-
sis. They are then oxidised into carbon di-
oxide during respiration by plants or her-
bivores which eat them and by carnivores
which eat the herbivores, thus releasing
carbon to go round the cycle again.
carbon carbon dating dating noun the process of find-
ing out how old something is by analysing
the amount of carbon, especially the radio-
active isotope carbon-14, in it that has de-
cayed. Also called carbon-14 dating
carbon carbon dioxide dioxide noun a colourless
odourless non-flammable atmospheric gas.
It is used in photosynthesis and given off in
aerobic respiration. Formula: CO2.
COMMENT: Carbon dioxide exists naturally
in air and is produced by burning or by de-
caying organic matter. In animals, the
body’s metabolism utilises carbon, which
is then breathed out by the lungs as waste
carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is re-
moved from the atmosphere by plants
when it is split by chlorophyll in photosyn-
thesis to form carbon and oxygen. It is also
dissolved from the atmosphere in water.
The increasing release of carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere, especially from burn-
ing fossil fuels, contributes to the green-
house effect.
carbon dioxide equivalent carbon dioxide equivalent
noun a
metric measure used in comparing emis-
sions from different greenhouse gases to
assess their global warming potential. Also
called CO2 equivalent carbon carbon dioxide tax dioxide tax noun same as car-
bon tax
carbon carbon emissions emissions plural noun the car-
bon dioxide and carbon monoxide pro-
duced by motor vehicles and industrial
processes and regarded as atmospheric pol-
lutants
carboniferous carboniferous adjective containing coal
or carbon ć carboniferous limestone
Carboniferous Carboniferous period period noun the period
of geological time when reptiles first ap-
31
cash crop
peared and much of the Earth’s surface was covered by forests carbonisation carbonisation noun the process by which fossil plants have become carbon carbon carbon monoxide monoxide noun a colourless, odourless and poisonous gas found in fumes from car engines, burning gas and cigarette smoke. Formula: CO. carbon carbon neutral neutral adjective referring to the balance between producing and using carbon (NOTE: Renewable plant fuels are carbon neutral – if the same numbers of plants are replanted as are harvested the CO2 levels in the air will remain about the same.)
carbon carbon sequestration sequestration noun the uptake and storage of carbon by trees and other plants absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen carbon carbon sink sink noun a part of the ecosphere such as a tropical forest which absorbs carbon carbon carbon source source noun a part of the ecosphere such as animals or an industrial or domestic process that releases carbon into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide carbon carbon tax tax noun an amount of money added by a government to the price of fuel according to its carbon content, to encourage the use of fuels that contain less carbon and so reduce emissions of carbon dioxide. Also called carbon dioxide tax carbon carbon tetrachloride tetrachloride noun a dense non-flammable toxic liquid that is colourless with a sweetish smell, used as a solvent, refrigerant and dry-cleaning agent and in fire extinguishers. Formula: CCl4. carbon carbon trading trading noun the system of one country using some of another country’s permitted carbon dioxide output as well as its own. ı emissions trading Carbon Carbon Trust Trust noun a UK organisation supported by government grants that encourages and promotes the development of low-carbon technologies, both energy-efficient technologies and low-carbon energy supplies carboxyhaemoglobin carboxyhaemoglobin noun a compound of carbon monoxide and the blood pigment haemoglobin formed when a person breathes in carbon monoxide from car fumes or from ordinary cigarette smoke carcin- carcin- prefix cancer carcinogen carcinogen noun a substance which causes cancer carcinogenesis carcinogenesis noun the formation of cancerous cells in tissue carcinogenic carcinogenic adjective causing cancer
car car lobby lobby noun a group of people who try to persuade politicians that cars should be encouraged and not restricted
carnivore carnivore noun an animal that eats meat.
ı detritivore, frugivore, herbivore, omnivore
carnivorous carnivorous adjective 1. referring to animals that eat meat ć a carnivorous animal 2. referring to plants which trap and digest insects ć Sundews are carnivorous plants.
carotene carotene noun an orange or red plant pigment (NOTE: Some carotenes are convert-
ed to vitamin A by animals.)
carpel carpel noun a female part of a flower, formed of an ovary, style and stigma
carr carr noun an area of wetland which supports some trees ć fen carr ć willow carr
carrageen carrageen noun a purplish-brown seaweed that contains a mucilage. Genera: Chondrus or Gigartina. Also called Irish
moss
carrageenan carrageenan noun an extract of seaweed, used as an emulsifier. It may be carcinogenic.
carrier carrier noun 1. an organism that carries disease and infects other organisms, e.g. an insect that transmits the parasite causing malaria 2. someone who has an infectious disease without showing symptoms, who may then infect other people 3. a neutral substance to which an active ingredient is added
carrier carrier bag bag noun a paper or plastic bag used for carrying goods bought in shops
(NOTE: Plastic bags present a considerable problem in terms of waste disposal.)
carrier carrier gas gas, carrier solvent noun a gas used in an aerosol can to make the spray come out
carrying carrying capacity capacity noun the maximum number of individuals of a species that can be supported in a given area
cascade cascade noun 1. a small waterfall 2. a system for purifying substances, in which the substance passes through a series of identical processes, each stage increasing the purity í verb (of liquid) to fall down like a waterfall
case case noun 1. an outer covering ć A butterfly pupa is protected in a hard case or chrysalis. 2. same as seedcase 3. a single occurrence of a disease ć There were two hundred cases of cholera in the recent outbreak.
cash cash crop crop noun a crop grown to be sold rather than eaten by the person who grows it, e.g. oil palm
cashew-nut shell liquor
32
cashew-nut cashew-nut shell liquor shell liquor noun a highly
corrosive substance produced from the
shells of cashew nuts, used in paints for
ships, heatproof materials and in ecocom-
posites to replace fossil oil. Abbr CNSL
caste caste noun a group with a particular func-
tion in a hierarchical society of social in-
sects such as termites
CAT CAT abbr control action threshold
catabolic catabolic adjective referring to catabo-
lism
catabolism catabolism noun the breaking down of
complex chemicals into simple chemicals
catadromous catadromous
,
katadromous
adjective
referring to fish that live in fresh water and
go to the sea to spawn. Compare anadro-
mous
catadromy catadromy
,
katadromy
noun
the
migra-
tion of fish such as eels from fresh water to
the sea for spawning. Compare anadromy
catalyse catalyse verb to act as a catalyst in help-
ing to make a chemical process take place
(NOTE: The US spelling is catalyze.)
catalysis catalysis noun a process in which a
chemical reaction is helped by a substance,
the catalyst, which does not change during
the process
catalyst catalyst noun a substance which produc-
es or helps a chemical reaction without it-
self changing ć an enzyme which acts as a
catalyst in the digestive process.
catalytic catalytic adjective referring to catalysis
catalytic catalytic converter converter, catalytic muffler
noun a box filled with a catalyst such as
platinum attached to the exhaust pipe of a
motor vehicle burning unleaded petrol in
order to reduce the emission of carbon
monoxide
catch catch noun the amount of fish caught ć
regulations to limit the herring catch
catchment catchment
,
catchment
area
noun
1.
an
area of land, sometimes extremely large,
that collects and drains the rainwater that
falls on it, e.g. the area round a lake or the
basin of a river. Also called drainage area,
drainage basin 2. an area around a school,
hospital, shopping centre, or other service
from which its pupils, patients or customers
come
catchment catchment basin basin noun same as catch-
ment 1
catchwater catchwater drain drain noun a type of drain
designed to take rainwater from sloping
ground
catena catena noun a diagram showing the dif-
ferences in soil caused by drainage
cation cation noun an ion with a positive electric
charge
catkin catkin noun a long hanging structure con-
sisting of many single-sex flowers on a thin
stem, found on temperate trees such as ha-
zel, birch and oak. They are pollinated by
the wind.
cattle cattle plural noun domestic farm animals
raised for their milk, meat and hide. Class:
Bovidae. ć herds of cattle ć dairy cattle
cattle identification document cattle identification document
noun
a document which identifies an animal and
shows its movements from owner to owner.
Abbr CID
caustic caustic adjective acid
caustic caustic soda soda noun same as sodium hy-
droxide
cave cave noun a large hole under the ground,
usually in rock
cavern cavern noun a very large cave, formed by
water which has dissolved limestone or
other calcareous rock
cavity cavity noun a hole inside a solid substance
CB CB abbr cumulonimbus
CBD CBD abbr Convention on Biological Di-
versity
CCW CCW abbr Countryside Council for Wales
Cd Cd symbol cadmium
CDM CDM abbr Clean Development Mecha-
nism
CE CE abbr consumption efficiency
cedar cedar noun a large coniferous tree belong-
ing to several genera, including Thuya and
Cedrus
ceiling ceiling noun an upper limit or point that
cannot be passed ć a ceiling on imports
-cele -cele
,
-coele
suffix
referring
to
a
hollow
cell cell noun 1. the basic independently func-
tioning unit of all plant and animal tissue 2.
a separate unit or section of something larg-
er 3. a system of positive and negative
plates for storage of electricity that form a
battery 4. the central part of a thunder cloud
ć The life cycle of the thunderstorm cell
ends when the downdraughts have spread
throughout the cloud.
cellular cellular adjective 1. referring to the cells
of organisms 2. made of many similar parts
connected together
cellulose cellulose noun 1. a carbohydrate which
makes up a large percentage of plant mat-
ter, especially cell walls 2. a chemical sub-
stance processed from wood, used for mak-
ing paper, film and artificial fibres
Celsius Celsius noun a scale of temperature
where the freezing and boiling points of
water are, respectively, 0° and 100°. Sym-
bol C. Former name centigrade (NOTE: It is
used in many countries, except in the USA,
33
character
where the Fahrenheit system is still com-
monly used.)
cement cement noun 1. material which binds things together, such as that which binds minerals together to form sedimentary rocks 2. a powder which, if mixed with water and then dried, sets hard like stone census census noun a survey of a specific population to assess numbers and other features centigrade centigrade noun ‘ Celsius centimetre centimetre noun a unit of measurement of length, equivalent to one hundredth of a metre. Symbol cm centre centre noun 1. a point in the middle of something ć a park in the centre of the town ć The centre of the hurricane passed over the city. 2. a large building ć a conference centre 3. a focus for activity or attention, or where activities are coordinated ć a resource centre (NOTE: The US spelling is
center.)
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Centre for Ecology and Hydrology noun a UK organisation that does research on and monitors terrestrial and freshwater environments centre centre of gravity of gravity noun the point through which the resultant force of gravity acts centre centre of origin of origin, centre of origin and diversity noun a region where a species is thought to have originated and spread from centrifugal centrifugal adjective going away from the centre centrifugation centrifugation noun the separation of the components of a liquid in a centrifuge. Also called centrifuging centrifuge centrifuge noun a device which uses centrifugal force to separate or remove liquids centrifuging centrifuging noun same as centrifuga-
tion
centripetal centripetal adjective going towards the centre cephal- cephal- prefix referring to the head cephalic cephalic adjective referring to the head cephalopod cephalopod noun a marine invertebrate animal with a well-developed head and tentacles, e.g. an octopus, squid or cuttlefish. Class: Cephalopoda. CERCLA CERCLA abbr Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act cereal cereal noun a type of grass which is cultivated for its grains. Cereals are used especially to make flour for breadmaking, for animal feed or for producing alcohol.
(NOTE: The main cereals are wheat, rice, barley, maize and oats.)
certification certification noun the process of obtain-
ing or giving approval for something such
as carrying out specific tests, or confirma-
tion for something such as the source from
which something was obtained
certify certify verb to authorise or permit the use
of something
cesspool cesspool
,
cesspit
noun
a
tank
for
house-
hold sewage, constructed in the ground
near a house which is not connected to the
main drainage system, and in which the
waste is stored before being pumped out for
disposal somewhere else
Cetacea Cetacea noun an order of mammals
which live in the sea, e.g. dolphins, por-
poises or whales
CFC CFC abbr chlorofluorocarbon
CFM CFM abbr chlorofluoromethane
CFP CFP abbr Common Fisheries Policy
chain chain noun a number of components
linked together, or a number of connected
events
chalk chalk noun a fine white limestone rock
formed of calcium carbonate
chalkpit chalkpit noun a hole in the ground from
which chalk is extracted
chalky chalky adjective referring to soil which is
contains a lot of chalk
CHaMP CHaMP abbr coastal habitat management
plan
change change verb to use one thing instead of
another
channel channel noun 1. a deep part of a harbour
or sea passage where ships can pass, or a
stretch of water between two seas 2. a bed
of a river or stream í verb to send water in
a particular direction (NOTE: British English
is channelled – channelling, but the US
spelling is channeled – channeling.)
channelisation channelisation noun the process of
straightening a stream which has many
bends, in order to make the water flow fast-
er
channelise channelise verb to straighten a stream
which has many bends, in order to make the
water flow faster
chaos chaos theory theory noun a theory stating that
when a system is sensitive to small differ-
ences in initial values, the future behaviour
of that system may be unpredictable
chaparral chaparral noun an area of temperate land
covered with shrubs, found along the coast
of California
character character noun 1. the way in which a
person thinks and behaves 2. the way in
which an animal or plant is different from
others 3. a feature of an organism that can
be inherited 4. a graphical symbol which
characterisation
34
appears as a printed or displayed mark, e.g.
one of the letters of the alphabet, a number
or a punctuation mark
characterisation characterisation noun a description of
the typical features of something ć ecolog-
ical characterisation of the landscape
characterise characterise verb 1. to be a characteris-
tic of something or someone ć Deserts are
characterised by little rainfall, arid soil
and very little vegetation. 2. to describe the
typical features of something
characteristic characteristic noun a property or fea-
ture of something ć inherited characteris-
tics ć One of the characteristics of an octo-
pus is that it can send out a cloud of ink
when attacked. í adjective typical or spe-
cial
characteristic characteristic species species noun a species
typical of and only occurring in a particular
region
charcoal charcoal noun an impure form of carbon,
formed when wood is burnt in the absence
of oxygen
charge charge noun a quantity of electricity
measured in coulombs
chart chart noun 1. a diagram showing informa-
tion as a series of lines or blocks 2. a map
of an area of water such as the sea or a large
lake í verb to make a chart of something
chasm chasm noun a deep hole in the earth or
rock
chem- chem- prefix referring to chemistry or
chemicals
chemical chemical noun a substance formed of
chemical elements or produced by a chem-
ical process ć the widespread use of chem-
icals in agriculture ć The machine analy-
ses the chemicals found in the collected
samples. í adjective 1. referring to chemis-
try or chemicals 2. not found in nature
(informal) ć an unpleasant chemical taste
chemical chemical bond bond noun the force which
links atoms to form molecules. Also called
bond
chemical chemical closet closet noun same as chemi-
cal toilet
chemical chemical control control noun the control of
pests using chemicals
chemical chemical element element noun a substance
which exists independently and cannot be
broken down into simpler substances
chemical chemical fertiliser fertiliser noun same as artifi-
cial fertiliser
Chemical Chemical of Concern of Concern noun ‘ List of
Chemicals of Concern
chemical oxygen demand chemical oxygen demand
noun the
amount of oxygen taken up by organic mat-
ter in water used as a measurement of the amount of organic matter in sewage. Abbr COD
chemical chemical toilet toilet noun a toilet containing chemicals to neutralise the body’s waste products. Also called chemical closet chemical chemical toxicity toxicity noun the poisonous nature of chemicals used in pest control chemist chemist noun a scientist who specialises in the study of chemistry chemistry chemistry noun 1. the study of substances, elements and compounds and their reactions with each other 2. chemical substances existing together ć Human action has radically altered the chemistry of the atmosphere. chemo- chemo- prefix chemistry
chemoautotrophic chemoautotrophic adjective referring to the oxidation of nitrogen or other chemical elements to create a source of food. Compare photoautotrophic
chemolithotrophic chemolithotrophic adjective referring to organisms such as bacteria which obtain energy from inorganic substances chemo-organotrophic chemo-organotrophic adjective referring to an organism such as an animal which obtains its energy from organic sources
chemoreceptor chemoreceptor noun a cell which responds to the presence of a chemical compound by activating a sensory nerve. ı re-
ceptor
chemosphere chemosphere noun the zone in the Earth’s atmosphere, above the upper part of the troposphere and within the stratosphere, where chemical changes take place under the influence of the Sun’s radiation chemosterilant chemosterilant noun a chemical substance which sterilises by microorganisms chemosynthesis chemosynthesis noun the production by bacteria of organic material using chemical reactions
chemotaxis chemotaxis noun a movement of a cell which is attracted to or repelled by a chemical substance chemotroph chemotroph noun an organism which converts the energy found in organic chemical compounds into more complex energy, without using sunlight. Compare pho-
totroph
chemotrophic chemotrophic adjective obtaining energy from sources such as organic matter. Compare phototrophic (NOTE: Most ani-
mals are chemotrophic.)
chemotropism chemotropism noun the movement or growth of an organism in response to a chemical stimulus
35
chlorosis
Chernobyl Chernobyl noun a town in the Ukraine
where a large nuclear power station had a
disastrous fire in 1986
chernozem chernozem noun a dark fertile soil, rich
in organic matter, found in the temperate
grass-covered plains of Russia and North
and South America. Also called black
earth
chickpea chickpea noun a legume crop, grown for
its large round pale-yellow seeds. It is im-
portant in India and Pakistan as a source of
protein. Genus: Cicer arietinum. Also
called gram
chill chill noun coldness
chimney chimney noun a tall tube, either inside a
building or separate from it, which takes
smoke and fumes away from a fire ć Smoke
poured out of the factory chimneys. ć
Chimneys were built very tall, so that the
polluting smoke would be carried a long
way away by the wind.
chimney chimney stack stack noun a tall chimney, es-
pecially on an industrial building
china china clay clay noun same as kaolin
China China syndrome syndrome noun a potential dis-
aster occurring when the core of a nuclear
reactor overheats
chinook chinook noun a warm wind that blows
from the Rocky mountains down onto the
Canadian plains in winter. Compare föhn
chitin chitin noun a tough waterproof substance
that forms part of the outer skeleton of in-
sects and the cell walls of fungi
chlor- chlor- prefix same as chloro-
chlorella chlorella noun a very small green fresh-
water alga, occurring naturally or grown
commercially for use in human food
chloride chloride noun a salt of hydrochloric acid
chlorinate chlorinate verb to treat something with
chlorine, especially to sterilise drinking
water or water in a swimming pool by add-
ing chlorine
chlorinated chlorinated adjective treated with chlo-
rine
chlorinated hydrocarbon chlorinated hydrocarbon
noun a
compound containing chlorine, carbon and
hydrogen that remains in the environment
after use and may accumulate in the food
chain, e.g. an organochlorine pesticide such
as lindane or DDT, an industrial chemical
such as a polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB),
or a chlorine waste product such as a dioxin
or furan
chlorination chlorination noun sterilisation by add-
ing chlorine
chlorinator chlorinator noun an apparatus for adding
chlorine to water
chlorine chlorine noun a greenish chemical element. It is used to sterilise water and for bleaching. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is
Cl; the atomic number is 17 and the atomic weight is 35.45.)
chloro- chloro- prefix chlorine
chlorofluorocarbon chlorofluorocarbon noun a compound of fluorine and chlorine. It is used as a propellant in aerosol cans, in the manufacture of plastic foam boxes, as a refrigerant in refrigerators and air conditioners and as a cleaner of circuit boards for computers. Abbr CFC
COMMENT: Chlorofluorocarbons are classified by numbers: CFC-10 is used in aerosols; CFC-11 is used to make plastic foam; CFC-12 is a coolant for refrigerators; and CFC-13 is a cleaning substance used in the electronics industry. When CFCs are released into the atmosphere, they rise slowly, taking about seven years to reach the stratosphere. But once they are there, under the influence of the Sun’s ultraviolet light they break down into chlorine atoms which destroy the ozone layer. This allows harmful solar UV radiation to pass through to the Earth’s surface. Because it takes so long for the CFCs to reach the stratosphere, any reduction in their use on Earth does not have an immediate effect on the concentrations in the stratosphere. Replacements for CFCs are being developed.
chlorofluoromethane chlorofluoromethane noun a gas that is a volatile organic compound, generated from landfill sites, petrol engine exhausts and other industrial processes. In the chemical industry, it is often manufactured from carbon tetrachloride. Formula: CH2CHO. Abbr CFM
chloromethane chloromethane noun a gas which is a compound of carbon and chlorine, formed by fungi as they rot wood (NOTE: It acts in a
similar way to CFCs in depleting the ozone layer.)
chlorophyll chlorophyll noun a green pigment in plants and some algae
Chlorophyta Chlorophyta noun a large group of algae that possess chlorophyll
chloroplast chloroplast noun a tiny sac within the cells of plants and some algae which contains chlorophyll and other pigments and is the place where photosynthesis occurs
(NOTE: The number of chloroplasts in a cell
varies, but each consists of interconnected stacks of disc-shaped membranes in fluid, surrounded by a double membrane.)
chlorosis chlorosis noun a reduction of chlorophyll in plants, making the leaves turn yellow
chlorpyrifos
36
chlorpyrifos chlorpyrifos noun an organophosphate
insecticide used on a wide range of crops
chlortoluron chlortoluron noun a herbicide applied as
a spray, especially on cereals (NOTE: It is un-
der review for withdrawal from use in the
European Union.)
cholera cholera noun a serious bacterial disease
spread through food or water which has
been infected by Vibrio cholerae ć A chol-
era epidemic broke out after the flood.
cholesterol cholesterol noun a fatty substance found
in fats and oils. It is produced by the liver
and forms an essential part of cells.
CHP CHP plant plant abbr combined heat and pow-
er plant
chrom- chrom- prefix same as chromo-
chromatography chromatography noun a scientific
method for separating and analysing chem-
icals through a porous medium
chromatophore chromatophore noun a plant or animal
cell which contains pigment, e.g. a cell in
the eyes, hair and skin, or a similar cell in
an alga (NOTE: Chromatophores enable
chameleons to change colour.)
chromium chromium noun a metallic trace element.
It is used to make alloys. (NOTE: The chem-
ical symbol is Cr; the atomic number is 24
and the atomic weight is 52.00.)
chromo- chromo- prefix 1. colour 2. chromium
chromosomal chromosomal adjective referring to
chromosomes
chromosome chromosome noun a thin structure in
the nucleus of a cell, formed of DNA which
carries the genes (NOTE: Different types of
organism have different numbers of chro-
mosomes.)
chromosome number chromosome number
noun the
number of chromosomes present in each
cell nucleus of a specific animal or plant
(NOTE: Each species has its own character-
istic chromosome number, e.g. humans
have 46 chromosomes, receiving 23 from
each parent.)
chronic chronic exposure exposure noun exposure to a
pollutant or radioactive substance for a
long period, even for a whole lifetime
chronobiology chronobiology noun the study of recur-
ring cycles of events in the natural world
chrysalis chrysalis noun 1. a stage in the develop-
ment of a butterfly or moth when the pupa
is protected in a hard case 2. the hard case
in which a pupa is protected
Chrysophyta Chrysophyta noun a group of golden-
brown algae, which store oil in their cell
walls
chute chute noun 1. a sloping channel along
which something such as water or rubbish
may pass 2. a waterfall
CID CID abbr cattle identification document
-cide -cide suffix killing
cilia cilia plural of cilium
ciliary ciliary adjective referring to cilia
ciliate ciliate
,
ciliated
adjective
having
cilia
cilium cilium noun one of many tiny projections
resembling hairs which move backwards
and forwards and drive particles or fluid
along (NOTE: The plural is cilia.)
cinders cinders plural noun 1. hard pieces of ma-
terial left when the flames from a burning
substance have gone out 2. the small pieces
of lava and rock thrown up in a volcanic
eruption
circadian circadian rhythm rhythm noun a rhythm of dai-
ly activities in plants and animals, repeat-
ing every twenty-four hours
circuit circuit breaker breaker noun an electrical device
used to interrupt an electrical supply when
there is too much current flow
circulate circulate verb to move round in such a
way as to arrive at the point of departure ć
Water circulates via the radiator and pump
through to the engine block itself.
circulation circulation noun the act of moving round
in such a way as to arrive at the point of de-
parture ć the circulation of the blood ć The
general circulation is indicated by the ar-
rows.
circulatory circulatory adjective referring to circula-
tion
circum- circum- prefix around
circumpolar circumpolar adjective around the North
or South Pole
circumpolar circumpolar vortex vortex noun a circular
movement of air around the North or South
Pole. Also called polar vortex
cirque cirque noun a hollow formed in moun-
tains or high plateaux by small, separate
glaciers. Also called corrie, cwm
cirrocumulus cirrocumulus noun a form of high
cloud, occurring above 5000m, like altocu-
mulus with little clouds
cirrostratus cirrostratus noun a high thin layer of
cloud
cirrus cirrus noun a high cloud, occurring above
5000 m, forming a mass of separate clouds
which look as if they are made of fibres, but
which are formed of ice crystals
CITES CITES abbr Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fau-
na and Flora
citric citric acid acid noun an acid found in fruit
such as oranges, lemons and grapefruit
citric citric acid cycle acid cycle noun same as Krebs
cycle
Cl Cl symbol chlorine
37
climax
cladding cladding noun a protective material sur-
rounding something
clarification clarification noun the process of remov-
ing solid waste matter from sewage
class class noun one of the categories into
which organisms are divided ć Groups of
plant and animal families are classified
into orders and groups of orders into class-
es.
classification classification noun a system by which
objects or organisms are put into order so as
to be able to refer to them again and identi-
fy them ć the classification of plants and
animals
classify classify verb 1. to allocate something to a
category ć The area has been classified as
an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. ć
The pollution records are classified under
the name of the site which has been pollut-
ed. 2. to restrict the publication of ć The re-
ports on the accident are classified and
may not be consulted by the public.
clay clay noun a type of heavy non-porous soil
made of fine particles of silicate
clayey clayey adjective containing clay ć These
plants do best in clayey soils.
claypan claypan noun a hollow on the surface of
clay land where rain collects
clean clean air air noun air which does not contain
impurities
Clean Development Mechanism Clean Development Mechanism
noun a scheme by which an industrialised
country can receive credit for emission re-
ductions in a developing country which re-
sult from projects financed by the industr-
ialised country. Abbr CDM
cleaner cleaner noun a fish or insect which cleans
other animals by removing dirt or parasites
cleanse cleanse verb to make clean
cleanser cleanser noun a powder or liquid used
for cleaning
clean clean up up verb to remove refuse, waste
substances or pollutants from a place ć
They are working to clean up the beaches
after the oil spill.
clean-up clean-up
,
cleaning-up
noun
an
act
of
re-
moving refuse, waste substances or pollut-
ants ć The local authorities have organised
a large-scale clean-up of polluted beaches.
clean-up clean-up costs costs plural noun the amount
of money which has to be spent to remove
pollutants, e.g. after an industrial process or
an environmental disaster such as an oil
spill
clear clear verb to remove something which is
in the way ć They cleared hectares of jun-
gle to make a new road to the capital.
clear clear air air noun an atmosphere with no mist
or smoke
clearance clearance noun the act of removing
something which is in the way in order to
make space for something else
clearcut clearcut noun the cutting down of all the
trees in an area í verb to clear an area of
forest by cutting down all the trees
clearcutting clearcutting
,
clearfelling
noun
cutting
down all the trees in an area at the same
time ć The greatest threat to wildlife is the
destruction of habitats by clearfelling the
forest for paper pulp.
clearfell clearfell verb to clear an area of forest by
cutting down all the trees
clear clear sky sky noun a sky with no clouds
cliff cliff noun the steep side of an area of high
ground, often by the sea, usually rocky
climate climate noun the general weather patterns
that a place has
climate climate change change noun a long-term alter-
ation in global weather patterns, occurring
naturally, as in a glacial or post-glacial pe-
riod, or as a likely result of atmospheric
pollution (NOTE: Sometimes climate
change is used interchangeably with ‘glo-
bal warming’, but scientists tend to use the
term in the wider sense to include natural
changes in the climate.)
climatic climatic adjective referring to climate
climatic climatic factor factor noun a condition of cli-
mate which affects the organisms living in
a specific area
climatic climatic variation variation noun the differences
between one type of climate and another, or
within the same climate type on different
occasions
climatic climatic zone zone noun one of the eight are-
as of the Earth which have different cli-
mates
COMMENT: The climatic zones are: the two polar regions (the Arctic and Antarctic); the boreal in the northern hemisphere, south
of the Arctic; two temperate zones, one in the northern hemisphere and one in the southern hemisphere; two subtropical zones, including the deserts; and the equatorial zone which has a damp tropical
climate.
climatological climatological adjective referring to cli-
matology ć Scientists have gathered clima-
tological statistics from weather stations
all round the world.
climatologist climatologist noun a scientist who spe-
cialises in the study of the climate
climatology climatology noun the scientific study of
climate
climax climax noun the final stage in the develop-
ment of plant colonisation of a specific site,
climax community
38
when changes occur within a mature and relatively stable community
climax climax community community noun a plant community which has been stable for many years and which changes only as the environment or climate changes or there is human interference
cline cline noun the set of gradual changes which take place in a species according to geographical and climatic differences across the environment in which it lives. ı
ecocline, geocline
clinker clinker noun the lumps of ash and hard residue from furnaces, used to make road surfaces or breeze blocks
clisere clisere noun the succession of communities influenced by the climate of an area
clog clog verb to prevent movement of fluid through a pipe, channel or filter because of a build-up of solid matter ć The stream was clogged with waterweed.
clone clone noun 1. a group of cells derived from a single cell by asexual reproduction and therefore identical to the first cell 2. an organism produced asexually, either naturally or by means such as taking cuttings from a plant 3. a group of organisms all of which have been derived from a single individual by asexual means í verb to reproduce an individual organism by asexual means
cloning cloning noun the reproduction of an individual organism by asexual means
Clostridium Clostridium noun a type of bacterium
(NOTE: Species of Clostridium cause botulism, tetanus and gas gangrene, but also increase the nitrogen content of soil.)
cloud cloud noun 1. a mass of water vapour or ice particles in the sky which can produce rain or snow 2. a mass of particles suspended in the air ć Clouds of smoke poured out of the factory chimney. ć Dust clouds swept across the plains. (NOTE: As a plural,
clouds means several separate clouds; otherwise the singular cloud can be used to refer to a large continuous mass: There is a mass of cloud over the southern part of the country.)
COMMENT: Clouds are formed as humid air rises and then cools, causing the water in it to condense. They are classified by meteorologists into ten categories: cirrus, cirrocumulus and cirrostratus (high-level clouds); altocumulus and altostratus (middle-level clouds); and stratocumulus, nimbostratus, cumulus, cumulonimbus and stratus (low-level clouds).
cloudbank cloudbank noun a mass of low clouds
cloudbase cloudbase noun the bottom part of a lay-
er of cloud
cloudburst cloudburst noun a sudden rainstorm
cloud cloud chamber chamber noun a piece of labora-
tory equipment in which clouds can be
formed for the study of ionisation
cloud cloud cover cover noun the amount of sky
which is covered by clouds. ı okta
cloud cloud forest forest noun a tropical forest grow-
ing at high altitude that is usually covered
by cloud and where epiphytes such as or-
chids, mosses and ferns grow easily on the
trees because of the constant moisture in
the air
cloud cloud formation formation noun a pattern of
clouds in the sky
cloudlayer cloudlayer noun a mass of clouds at a
specific height above the land
cloudless cloudless adjective without clouds
cloudy cloudy adjective 1. covered with clouds ć
a cloudy sky 2. not clear or transparent ć a
cloudy liquid
clump clump noun 1. a group of particles which
stick together 2. a group of trees or plants
growing together ć a clump of bushes ć a
clump of grass 3. a group of items brought
close together in a mass ć to form a clump
í verb to collect or stick together
clumping clumping noun the formation of a mass
of things in close association
cluster cluster noun 1. a group of similar things
that are close together ć a flower cluster 2.
a number of similar events happening at a
similar time or in a similar place ć a cluster
of leukaemia patients in the area of the nu-
clear power station
cnidarian cnidarian noun a marine invertebrate
with tentacles surrounding its mouth, e.g. a
sea anemone, coral and jellyfish. Phylum:
Cnidaria.
CNSL CNSL abbr cashew-nut shell liquor
Co Co symbol cobalt
CO CO symbol carbon monoxide
CO CO
2,
CO2
symbol
carbon
dioxide
coagulant coagulant noun a substance which can
make blood coagulate
coagulate coagulate verb (of a liquid) to become
semi-solid as suspended particles clump to-
gether
coagulation coagulation noun (of a liquid) the proc-
ess of becoming semi-solid
coal coal noun a solid black organic substance
found in layers underground in most parts
of the world, burnt to provide heat or power
coal coal deposit deposit noun a layer of coal in the
rocks beneath the Earth’s surface
39
codominant
coalescence coalescence noun the process of joining
together to form a larger mass or number ć
Coalescence of water vapour in the atmos-
phere forms larger droplets of water.
coal-fired power station coal-fired power station
noun a pow-
er station which burns coal to produce elec-
tricity
coal coal measure measure noun a layer of rock con-
taining coal that erodes very quickly and
soon becomes covered in vegetation, there-
fore rarely seen exposed
coal coal mine mine noun a hole dug in the ground
to extract coal
coarse coarse adjective referring to a particle or
feature which is larger than others ć
Coarse sand fell to the bottom of the liquid
as sediment, while the fine grains remained
suspended.
coarse coarse fish fish noun freshwater fish other
than salmon and trout
coarse coarse fishing fishing noun the leisure activity
of catching freshwater fish other than salm-
on and trout
coast coast noun the zone where the land meets
the sea
coastal coastal adjective near the coast ć a plant
found in coastal waters
coastal coastal area area noun an area of land that is
affected in various ways by its closeness to
the sea together with the area of sea that is
affected by being close to human activities
on and from the land
coastal coastal cell cell noun a specific area of coast
within which sediments move
coastal coastal defences defences plural noun structures
such as sea walls or groynes built to protect
the coast from erosion by the action of
waves. Also called sea defences
coastal defence strategy coastal defence strategy
noun an of-
ficial plan for the protection of the coast
coastal coastal erosion erosion noun the loss of land
from a coast as a result of the force of
waves and currents
coastal coastal fishery fishery noun an area of sea near
the coast where fish are caught
coastal coastal fog fog noun a type of advection fog
which forms along the coast
coastal habitat management plan coastal habitat management plan
noun an overview of the loss and gain of
coastal habitats over 30–100 years and op-
tions for preventing, restoring or compen-
sating for lost habitats. Abbr CHaMP
coastal coastal lagoon lagoon noun a body of seawater
near the coast, separated from the sea by a
small strip of land and with only a small
opening to the sea
coastal coastal pelagic fish pelagic fish noun a fish which lives in the upper layer of the sea, close to land coastal coastal protection protection, coast protection work noun action to protect the coast from being eroded by the action of the sea such as building sea walls and projecting structures to break the force of the waves coastal coastal realignment realignment noun the gradual change in a coastline, as land disappears into or is deposited from the sea, often as part of a policy to provide more effective sea defences or restore wetlands coastal coastal retreat retreat noun serious erosion of a coastline coastal coastal squeeze squeeze noun the reduction of the area of land near a coast or the loss of its former use because of its position between rising sea levels and fixed sea defences or high ground coastal coastal waters waters plural noun the waters outside the low-water line or the outer limit of an estuary coastline coastline noun the outline of a coast as seen on a map or a high place, or the land as seen from the sea cob cob interjection same as corn cob cobalt cobalt noun a metallic element. It is used to make alloys. (NOTE: The chemical sym-
bol is Co; the atomic number is 27 and the atomic weight is 58.93.)
coccidioidomycosis coccidioidomycosis noun a lung disease caused by inhaling spores of the fungus Coccidioides immitis coccus coccus noun a bacterium shaped like a ball (NOTE: The plural is cocci.) cockroach cockroach noun a black beetle that is a common household pest. Order: Dyctyoptera. coconut coconut oil oil noun an oil extracted from dried coconut flesh or copra coconut coconut palm palm noun a palm tree with large hard-shelled edible nuts. Latin name: Cocos nucifera. COD COD abbr chemical oxygen demand code code verb to convert instructions, information or data into another form codisposal codisposal noun the final disposal of non-hazardous solid industrial waste that will not decompose together with hazardous waste in a managed site codistillation codistillation noun the process by which molecules of toxic substances can be evaporated into clouds over land and then fall back into the sea as rain codominant codominant adjective 1. referring to a species that is as abundant as another in a community ć There are three codominant
coefficient
40
tree species in this forest. 2. referring to alleles of a gene that are not fully dominant over other alleles in a heterozygous individual coefficient coefficient noun a mathematical quantity placed before and multiplying another (NOTE: In 4xy, 4 is the coefficient of x.)
coefficient coefficient of haze of haze noun a number which shows the percentage of dust and smoke in the atmosphere -coele -coele suffix another spelling of -cele
coelom coelom noun the body cavity in most many-celled animals including humans coevolution coevolution noun the evolution of two species together such as parasite and host coffee coffee noun a bush or small tree widely grown in the tropics for its seeds, which are used to make a drink. Latin name: Coffea arabica.
cogeneration cogeneration noun the production of heat and power, as in a combined heat and power installation cohort cohort noun a group of individuals sharing a common factor such as age or a set of circumstances cohort cohort study study noun an investigation in which a group of people without a disease are classified according to their exposure to a risk and are studied over a period of time to see if they develop the disease, in order to study links between risk and disease
coir coir noun a rough fibre from the outer husk of coconuts coke coke noun a fuel manufactured by heating coal to high temperatures without the presence of air coke coke burner burner noun a device in which coal is heated to produce coke col col noun 1. a high pass between two mountains 2. a low pressure area between two anticyclones cold-blooded cold-blooded adjective referring to an animal such as a reptile or fish whose body temperature is dependent on the temperature of its surroundings. Also called ecto-
therm, poikilotherm
coleopteran coleopteran noun an insect such as a beetle with modified tough forewings that act as covers for the membranous hindwings. Order: Coleoptera. coliform coliform adjective referring to bacteria which are similar in shape to Escherichia coli collection collection noun 1. the process of gathering something together ć the regular collection of samples for analysis 2. a group of objects or organisms brought together ć a
labelled collection of insects ć a living col-
lection of plants
collector collector panel panel noun same as solar
panel
colloid colloid noun a substance with very small
particles that do not settle but remain in
suspension in a liquid
colloidal colloidal adjective referring to a colloid
colonial colonial adjective referring to a colony
colonial colonial animal animal noun an animal which
usually lives in colonies, e.g. an ant
colonisation colonisation noun the act of colonising
a place ć Islands are particularly subject to
colonisation by species of plants or ani-
mals introduced by people.
colonise colonise verb (of plants and animals) to
become established in a new ecosystem ć
Derelict city sites rapidly become colonised
by plants. ć Rats have colonised the sew-
ers.
coloniser coloniser
,
colonist
noun
an
organism
that moves into and establishes itself in a
new ecosystem, e.g. a plant such as a weed
colony colony noun a group of animals, plants or
microorganisms living together in a place ć
a colony of ants
coloration coloration noun the colours or patterns
of an animal ć protective coloration
colour colour noun the set of differing wave-
lengths of light that are reflected from ob-
jects and sensed by the eyes ć Flower col-
our attracts insects. í verb to give colour to
something ć The chemical coloured the
water blue. (NOTE: [all senses] The US
spelling is color.)
colouring colouring noun 1. the appearance of
something in terms of its colour 2. same as
food colouring
colourless colourless adjective with no colour ć
Water is a colourless liquid.
column column noun 1. a solid with a tall narrow
shape ć Basalt rocks form columns in some
parts of the world. 2. a body of fluid with a
tall, narrow shape ć Torricelli first demon-
strated that the atmosphere has weight by
showing that it can support a column of liq-
uid. 3. a vertical section of a table in a doc-
ument ć Column four of the table shows
the totals of the other three.
columnar columnar adjective in the form of a col-
umn ć Igneous rocks may have a columnar
structure.
combe combe
,
coombe
noun
a
small
valley
with
steep sides and usually no water flowing
through it
combination combination noun 1. two or more things
together ć Lichens are a combination of a
fungus and an alga. 2. the act of bringing
41
compaction
two or more things together ć the success-
ful combination of our ideas with their re-
sources
combine combine verb to bring two or more things
together to make one, or to come together to make one
combined heat and power plant combined heat and power plant
noun a power station that produces both
electricity and hot water. Abbr CHP plant
(NOTE: Such a plant may operate on almost
any fuel, including refuse.)
combust combust verb to burn, or to burn some-
thing ć The region combusts 75% of its
refuse for heat reclamation.
combustion combustion noun the burning of a substance with oxygen
command-and-control regulations command-and-control regulations
plural noun rules that require polluters to
meet specific emission-reduction targets,
often using specific types of equipment
commensal commensal noun an organism which lives on another plant or animal but does
not harm it or influence it in any way. ı parasite, symbiont í adjective referring to a commensal
commensalism commensalism noun the state of organisms existing together as commensals
comminution comminution noun the crushing or
grinding of rock, ore or sewage into small
particles
comminutor comminutor noun a crushing machine that makes particles smaller
committee committee noun a group of people dealing with a particular subject or problem
common common adjective 1. occurring frequent-
ly ć a common spelling error 2. used or
done by several people ć a common ethical stance 3. ordinary ć common household
chemicals 4. belonging to several different
people or to everyone ć common land í
noun an area of land to which the public has access for walking
COMMENT: About 80% of common land is privately owned and, subject to the inter-
ests of any commoners, owners enjoy essentially the same rights as the owners of other land. Commoners have different types of ‘rights of common’, e.g. to graze animals, or to extract sand, gravel or peat.
Common Agricultural Policy Common Agricultural Policy
noun a
set of regulations and mechanisms agreed
between members of the European Union
to control the supply, marketing and pricing of farm produce. Abbr CAP
Common Common Birds Census Birds Census noun an ongoing survey of commonly occurring birds,
run by the British Trust for Ornithology
commoner commoner noun someone with a right to
use a common in a particular way, e.g. to
graze animals on it
Common Fisheries Policy Common Fisheries Policy
noun the
legal framework which covers all fishing in
the European Union. It aims to conserve
fish stocks by regulating fish catches. Abbr
CFP
common common land land noun same as common
common common nuisance nuisance noun a criminal act
which causes harm or danger to members
of the public in general or to their rights
community community noun 1. a group of people
who live and work in a district ć The health
services serve the local community. 2. a
group of different organisms which live to-
gether in an area ć the plant community on
the sand dunes
community architecture community architecture
noun a way
of designing new housing projects or adapt-
ing old buildings, in which the people liv-
ing in the area as well as specialists are in-
volved in the planning
community community ecology ecology noun the study of
the processes that determine the composi-
tion and structure of the mixture of species
found in a particular area
community community forest forest noun a wooded
landscape near an urban area, sometimes
created on formerly derelict land, main-
tained for work, wildlife, recreation and ed-
ucation
community community transport transport noun a bus or
rail service which is available to the com-
munity
commute commute verb to travel regularly to and
from home and a place of work ć Thou-
sands of people commute long distances
daily.
commuter commuter noun a person who travels
regularly to and from his or her place of
work, especially in a city
commuter commuter belt belt noun an area around a
big city, where commuters live
commuting commuting noun the activity of travel-
ling regularly to and from home and a place
of work ć a huge increase in commuting
from cheaper housing areas into the cities
compact compact verb to compress the ground
and make it hard, e.g. by driving over it
with heavy machinery or as the result of a
lot of people walking on it
compaction compaction
,
compacting
noun
the
compression of ground and making it hard,
e.g. by driving over it with heavy machin-
ery or as the result of a lot of people walk-
ing on it
compactor
42
compactor compactor noun 1. a machine which
compresses the ground and makes it hard 2.
a machine that crushes refuse
companion companion animal animal noun an animal that
is kept for company and enjoyable interac-
tion, rather than for work or food
companion companion plant plant noun a plant which
improves the growth of nearby plants
(NOTE: Companion plants are often used by
horticulturists and gardeners because they
encourage growth or reduce pest infesta-
tion in an adjacent plant.)
companion companion planting planting noun the use of
plants that encourage the growth of others
nearby
comparative risk analysis comparative risk analysis
noun the
comparison of two types of risk
compartment compartment noun a section of a man-
aged plantation of trees
compensation compensation depth depth noun the point in
a lake or sea at which the rate of formation
of organic matter by photosynthesis is the
same as the rate of loss of matter by respi-
ration
compensation compensation point point noun the point at
which the rate of photosynthesis is the
same as the rate of respiration (NOTE: It can
be measured as the point at which the
amount of carbon dioxide used by plants
equals the amount of oxygen they release.)
compensatory compensatory habitat habitat noun a habitat
created because an existing protected natu-
ral area has been damaged or lost
compensatory measure compensatory measure
noun a
course of action that is taken to improve a
situation when environmental damage can-
not be directly restored
compete compete verb to try to obtain the same
limited resources such as food, light or a
mate as other organisms of the same or dif-
ferent species
competition competition noun the struggle for limit-
ed resources such as food, light or a mate,
occurring between organisms of the same
or different species
competitive exclusion principle competitive exclusion principle
noun the concept that two or more species
with identical requirements will not be able
to live on the same limited resources be-
cause one species will compete more suc-
cessfully than the other (NOTE: The loser
has to adapt its feeding habits or behaviour
or migrate to another area, otherwise it will
experience a decrease in population or
even become extinct.)
competitive competitive release release noun the process
by which a species may expand its niche if
it has no competitors
complementarity complementarity noun nature conservation based on a balance between wild and domesticated species in an area compliance compliance noun the act of obeying a regulation or conforming to a set of standards comply comply with with verb to obey a regulation ć People importing plants have to comply with CITES regulations. compose compose verb to be made from a number of parts ć A carpel is composed of an ovary, a stigma and a style. Compositae Compositae plural noun former name for Asteraceae composition composition noun the make-up or structure of something ć the composition of the atmosphere compost compost noun 1. rotted vegetation, used as fertiliser or mulch 2. a prepared soil or peat mixture in which plants are grown in horticulture í verb to form material resembling humus by the decomposition of organic waste, as in a compost heap compost compost heap heap noun a pile of organic, especially plant, waste, usually kept in a container and left to decay gradually, being turned over occasionally. It is used as a fertiliser and soil improver. composting composting noun the controlled decomposition of organic waste, especially used for the disposal for plant waste in gardens or domestic green waste such as vegetable peelings compound compound noun a substance made up of two or more components compound compound fertiliser fertiliser noun a fertiliser that supplies two or more nutrients. Also called mixed fertiliser. Compare straight
fertiliser
compulsory compulsory adjective forced or ordered by an authority ć the compulsory slaughter of infected animals concentrate concentrate noun 1. the strength of a solution, or the quantity of a substance in a specific volume 2. a strong solution which is to be diluted ć orange juice made from concentrate í verb to reduce the volume of a solution and increase its strength by evaporation. Opposite dilute concentration concentration noun 1. a collection in a particular place rather than spread around ć The maximum concentration of ozone is between 20 and 25 km above the Earth’s surface. 2. the amount of a substance in a given volume or mass of a solution concentration concentration peak peak noun the largest amount of a substance in a solution or in a given volume
43
connection
concrete concrete noun a hard stone-like substance made by mixing cement, sand, aggregate and water and letting it dry concretion concretion noun the formation of a solid mass of rock from pieces of stones and other sedimentary materials concretionary concretionary adjective referring to stone which is formed by concretion condensate condensate noun 1. a substance formed by condensation, e.g. a liquid formed from a vapour 2. a substance that is a gas when occurring naturally underground but becomes liquid when brought to the surface condensation condensation noun 1. the action of making vapour into liquid 2. the water that forms when warm damp air meets a cold surface such as a wall or window condense condense verb 1. to make something compact or more dense 2. to make a vapour become liquid condensed condensed adjective made compact or more dense condenser condenser noun a device that cools steam or other vapour and turns it back into liquid condition condition noun 1. the present state of something 2. the physical state of a site of special scientific interest, according to whether or not conservation objectives are being achieved ć favourable condition ć unfavourable condition í plural noun conditions variable environmental factors such as temperature, salinity and acidity to which organisms respond ć in wet or dry conditions conditioned conditioned reflex reflex noun 1. an automatic reaction by an animal to a stimulus, learned from past experience 2. a reaction to a stimulus learned from past experience conditioner conditioner noun a substance that is used to make an improvement in something else ć mushroom compost used as a soil conditioner conditioning conditioning noun the act of improving the quality of something conduct conduct verb to carry out something such as an experiment, survey or review conduction conduction noun the process by which heat or electricity passes through a substance ć Heat is transferred to the layer of air next to the Earth’s surface by conduc-
tion. conductive conductive adjective having the ability to allow heat or electricity to pass through ć Steel is a conductive material. ć Land masses are less conductive than water. conductivity conductivity noun the ability of a material to conduct heat or electricity ć Because
of the poor conductivity of air, heat is trans-
ferred from the Earth’s surface upwards by
convection.
conduit conduit noun 1. a channel along which a
fluid flows 2. a pipe or elongated box used
to protect electrical cables
cone cone noun 1. a solid body with a base in
the shape of a circle, and with sides that
narrow to a point 2. a hard scaly structure
containing seeds on such plants as conifers
Conference of the Parties Conference of the Parties
noun the
group of nations which have ratified the
Framework Convention on Climate
Change. Abbr COP
confluence confluence noun a place where two riv-
ers or streams of air join
congener congener noun 1. a species which be-
longs to the same genus as another 2. a
chemical element which belongs to the
same group as another
congenital congenital adjective existing at or before
birth
congested congested adjective blocked
congestion congestion noun 1. the blocking of a
tube or a passage 2. the situation that occurs
when there is too much traffic to be able to
flow freely in the streets of a town or city
congestion congestion charge charge noun a sum of
money paid by motorists to be allowed to
drive a vehicle into a town or city centre
congestion congestion charging charging noun a method
of reducing congestion in a city by charging
motorists a fee to drive within a certain area
conglomerate conglomerate noun a sedimentary layer
formed of small round stones
conifer conifer noun a tree with long thin needle-
shaped leaves and bearing seed in scaly
cones. Most are evergreen.
coniferous coniferous adjective referring to coni-
fers
coniferous coniferous forest forest, coniferous wood-
land noun an area of wooded land consist-
ing of more than 75% conifers
coning coning noun the widening out of a col-
umn of smoke as it leaves a chimney
conjugation conjugation noun 1. a simple form of re-
production in single-celled organisms in
which they join together, exchange genetic
information and then separate 2. in algae
and fungi, the fusion of male and female
nuclei 3. the alternation in a molecule of
two or more double or triple bonds with
single bonds
connect connect verb to join or associate two or
more objects, processes or ideas together ć
Bones are connected to form a skeleton.
connection connection noun a point at which things
are joined or associated ć the connection
conservancy
44
between living things and their environ-
ment
conservancy conservancy noun an official body
which protects a part of the environment
conservation conservation noun 1. the process of
protecting something from undesirable
change 2. the maintenance of environmen-
tal quality and resources by the use of eco-
logical knowledge and principles
conservation conservation area area noun an area of spe-
cial environmental or historical importance
that is protected by law from changes that
have not received official permission
conservation conservation biology biology noun the study
of how species and ecosystems can be
maintained
conservation conservation body body noun a group of
people or an organisation that promotes the
conservation of species, habitats or an area
of countryside and the careful management
of natural resources
conservation conservation headland headland noun an area
between the edge of a crop and the first
tractor tramline that is treated less inten-
sively with pesticides so that a range of
broadleaved weeds and beneficial insects
survive, used as a method of encouraging
biodiversity
conservationist conservationist noun a person who
promotes, carries out or works for conser-
vation
conservation conservation measure measure noun a way in
which environmental quality can be main-
tained
conservation of energy conservation of energy
noun the
process of making consumption of energy
more efficient, preventing loss or waste of
energy, e.g. by the loss of heat from build-
ings
conservation of resources conservation of resources
noun the
process of managing resources such as fos-
sil fuels and other natural materials so as
not to waste them, damage them or use
them too quickly
conservation conservation status status noun the condi-
tion of a site of special scientific interest,
according to whether or not conservation
objectives are being achieved
conservation conservation tillage tillage noun a farming
method which aims to plough the soil as lit-
tle as possible, to prevent erosion, save en-
ergy and improve biodiversity. Also called
minimum tillage
conserve conserve verb 1. to keep and not waste something ˽ to conserve energy to use
only as much electricity or other fuel as is
really needed, e.g. by keeping central heat-
ing a little lower than before 2. to look after
and keep something in the same state ć to
conserve tigers’ habitat
consociation consociation
,
consocies
noun
an
eco-
logical community that has one main spe-
cies, e.g. a wood consisting mostly of beech
trees
conspecific conspecific adjective referring to an or-
ganism belonging to the same species as
another organism í noun an organism be-
longing to the same species as another or-
ganism
constant constant noun an item of data whose val-
ue does not change. Opposite variable í
adjective 1. not changing ˽ to remain con-
stant to stay the same ć The temperature of
the gas remains constant. 2. continuous,
not stopping ć The wardens complained
about the constant stream of visitors to the
reservation.
constituent constituent noun a substance or compo-
nent which forms part of a whole í adjec-
tive forming part of a whole ć the constitu-
ent elements of air
construction construction noun 1. the building of
something 2. something built ć an elegant
construction of steel
construction construction industry industry noun the busi-
ness or trade of constructing buildings
consultative consultative body body noun a group of
people who can give their advice and opin-
ion on a subject but who do not have the
power to make laws
consumable consumable adjective able to be con-
sumed
consumable consumable goods goods, consumables
plural noun products that are used quickly
and have to be bought often, e.g. food or
stationery
consume consume verb 1. to use up or burn fuel ć
The new pump consumes only half the fuel
which the other pump would use. 2. to eat
foodstuffs ć The population consumes ten
tonnes of foodstuffs per week.
consumer consumer noun 1. a person or company
which buys and uses goods and services ć
Gas consumers are protesting at the in-
crease in prices. ć The factory is a heavy
consumer of water. 2. an organism that eats
other organisms. Compare producer
consumerism consumerism noun a movement for the
protection of the rights of consumers
consumer consumer panel panel noun a group of con-
sumers who report on products they have
used so that the manufacturers can improve
them or use what the panel says about them
in advertising
consumer consumer protection protection noun protecting
consumers against unfair or illegal traders
45
contract
consumer consumer research research noun research into why consumers buy goods and what goods they really want to buy consumption consumption noun 1. the fact or process of using something ć a car with low petrol consumption ć The country’s consumption of wood has fallen by a quarter. 2. the taking of food or liquid into the body ć Nearly 3% of all food samples were found to be unfit for human consumption through contamination by lead.
consumption consumption efficiency efficiency noun the percentage of the total available matter at one trophic level which is consumed by animals at the next trophic level, e.g. the percentage of plants eaten by herbivores. Abbr CE
contact contact noun a physical connection between two or more things contact contact herbicide herbicide, contact weedkiller noun a substance which kills a plant whose leaves it touches, e.g. paraquat contagion contagion noun the spreading of a disease by touching an infected person, or objects which an infected person has touched. Compare infection contagious contagious adjective referring to a disease which can be transmitted by touching an infected person, or objects which an infected person has touched. Compare infec-
tious
container container noun 1. a box, case or bottle that holds something else 2. a large case, with internationally agreed measurements, that can be transported by truck and then easily loaded on a ship containment containment noun the actions taken to stop the spread of something such as disease or contamination contaminant contaminant noun a substance which causes contamination
contaminate contaminate verb to make something impure by touching it or by adding something, especially something harmful, to it ć Supplies of drinking water were contaminated by uncontrolled discharges from the
factory. contaminated contaminated land land, contaminated site noun an area which has been polluted as a result of human activities such as industrial processes, presenting a hazard to human health, and which needs cleaning before it can be used for other purposes
COMMENT: Contaminated land is a feature of most industrialised countries. Careless past management of waste, lack of pollution controls and many leaks and spills have left a legacy of land contaminated by a wide variety of substances. In some cases this presents unacceptable risks to hu-
man beings, ecosystems, water resources or property and has to be dealt with by formal remedial measures.
contamination contamination noun 1. the action of
making something impure ć the contami-
nation of the water supply by runoff from
the fields ˽ contamination of air pollution
in the atmosphere 2. the state of something
such as water or food which has been con-
taminated and so is harmful to living organ-
isms ć The level of contamination is drop-
ping.
content content noun whatever is contained with-
in something (NOTE: This is often ex-
pressed as a percentage.)
continent continent noun one of the seven large
landmasses on the Earth’s surface (NOTE:
The continents are Asia, Africa, North
America, South America, Australia, Europe
and Antarctica.)
continental continental adjective referring to a con-
tinent
continental continental climate climate noun a type of cli-
mate found in the centre of a large conti-
nent away from the sea, with long dry sum-
mers, very cold winters and not much rain-
fall
continental continental crust crust noun the part of the
Earth’s crust under the continents and con-
tinental shelves, lying above the oceanic
crust
continental continental drift drift noun a geological the-
ory that the present continents were once
part of a single landmass and have gradual-
ly drifted away from each other over a peri-
od of millions of years
continental continental shelf shelf noun the sloping land
surface of the seabed from the shore out to
sea for an average distance of 70 km
contingent valuation method contingent valuation method
noun a
survey-based economic method which is
used to determine the monetary value of the
benefits or costs of an environmental policy
or feature
continuous continuous adjective going on without
stopping
contour contour noun 1. the shape of something
2. same as contour line
contour contour line line noun a line drawn on a map
to show ground of the same height above
sea level
contour contour ploughing ploughing noun the practice
of ploughing across the side of a hill so as
to create ridges along the contours of the
land which will hold water and prevent ero-
sion
contract contract noun an agreement
control
46
control control noun 1. the action of directing or
working in a specific way 2. the process of
restraining something or keeping some-
thing in order ˽ to bring or keep some-
thing under control to make sure that
something is well regulated ć The authori-
ties brought the epidemic under control. ˽
out of control unregulated ć The epidemic
appears to be out of control. 3. (in experi-
ments) a sample used as a comparison with
the one being tested í verb to direct or
manage something
control action threshold control action threshold
noun the
point at which the amount of pest infesta-
tion makes it necessary to start pest control.
Abbr CAT
controlled controlled atmosphere atmosphere noun the con-
ditions in which oxygen and carbon diox-
ide concentrations are regulated and moni-
tored, e.g. to improve the storage of fruit
and vegetables
controlled controlled dumping dumping noun the disposal
of waste on special sites
controlled controlled environment environment noun an envi-
ronment in which conditions such as tem-
perature, atmosphere and relative humidity
are regulated and monitored
controlled controlled experiment experiment noun an exper-
iment designed to test the effects of inde-
pendent variables on a dependent variable
by changing one independent variable at a
time
controlled controlled landfill landfill noun the disposal of
waste in a landfill carried out under a per-
mit system according to the specific laws in
force
controlled controlled tipping tipping noun the disposal of
waste in special landfill sites. ı fly-tipping
conurbation conurbation noun a large area covered
with buildings such as houses, factories or
offices
convection convection noun the process by which
hot air rises and cool air descends ć Heat is
transferred from the Earth’s surface up-
wards largely by convection.
convention convention noun 1. a meeting of large
numbers of people ć a convention of envi-
ronmentalists 2. a formal agreement ć
Convention on Biological Diversity ˽ by
convention by general agreement or cus-
tom
conventional conventional adjective usual, accepted
and familiar to most people ć the conven-
tional symbols used on weather charts
conventional conventional fuel fuel noun a traditional
means of providing energy, e.g. coal, wood
or gas, as opposed to alternative energy
sources such as solar power, tidal power or wind power
Convention on Biological Diversi- Convention on Biological Diversity ty noun an international agreement made at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 to conserve biological diversity, encourage sustainable use of natural resources and ensure that benefits from the use of genetic resources are shared in a fair way. Abbr CBD
Convention on International Trade Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora noun an international agreement between 123 countries to reduce or prevent the trade in endangered species of wild animals and plants. Abbr CITES
Convention on the Conservation Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats noun an agreement made in 1979 between 45 European and African states to conserve wild flora and fauna, especially endangered and vulnerable species, including migratory species, and their natural habitats. Also called Bern Conven-
tion
convergence convergence noun 1. the movement towards or the act of coming together or meeting at a point ć There is convergence of meridians of longitude at the North and South Poles. 2. a phenomenon that occurs whenever there is a net inflow of air into a region of the atmosphere, resulting in the accumulation of air and an increase in density. Compare divergence 3. the process that occurs in an ocean when warm surface water meets cold polar surface water and starts to cool and sink
convergence convergence zone zone noun the area of an ocean in which convergence occurs
conversion conversion noun a change from one system or set of beliefs to another
convert convert verb to change something to a different system, set of rules or state ć Photochemical reactions convert oxygen to ozone. ć She has converted her car to take LPG.
converter converter noun a device which alters the form of something ć A backup converter converts the alternating current power into direct current.
cool cool adjective rather cold
coolant coolant noun a substance used to cool something such as an engine
coombe coombe noun another spelling of combe
cooperation cooperation noun the act of working together in harmony to achieve a common goal
COP COP abbr Conference of the Parties
47
cosmic radiation
copper copper noun a metallic trace element. It is essential to biological life and used in making alloys and in electric wiring. (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Cu; the atomic number
is 29 and the atomic weight is 63.55.)
coppice coppice noun an area of trees which have been cut down to near the ground to allow shoots to grow which are then harvested. The shoots may be used as fuel or for making products such as baskets or fencing. í verb to cut trees down to near the ground to produce strong straight shoots ć Coppiced wood can be dried for use in wood-burning stoves. Compare pollard coppice coppice forest forest, coppice wood noun woodland that has regrown from shoots formed on the stumps or roots of previously cut trees, usually cut again after a few years to provide small branches for uses such as fuel coppicing coppicing noun the practice of regularly cutting down trees near to the ground to produce strong straight shoots for fuel or other uses ć Coppicing, a traditional method of woodland management, is now of interest for producing biofuel.
COMMENT: The best trees for coppicing are those which naturally send up several tall straight stems from a bole, such as willow, alder or poplar. In coppice management, the normal cycle is about five to ten years of growth, after which the stems are cut back.
copra copra noun the dried pulp of a coconut, from which oil is extracted by pressing coprolite coprolite noun fossilized dung of ancient animals, formerly mined and used as fertilizer coprophilous coprophilous adjective growing on dung ć coprophilous fungi copse copse noun an area of small trees copy copy noun a duplicate of an original ć Make copies of the report for everyone. coral coral noun a rock-like substance composed of the skeletons of dead polyps core core noun the central part of something ć The Earth’s core is believed to be formed of
nickel and iron. Corinair Corinair noun a programme to establish an inventory of emissions of air pollutants in Europe Corine Corine noun a collection of information on important issues such as land cover, coastal erosion and biotopes for the major natural sites in Europe. Full form Coordination of information on the environment
cork cork noun a protective outer layer that forms part of the bark in woody plants, tak-
ing many years to regrow once stripped
(NOTE: It is used, among other things, for
bottle corks, fishing net floats and flooring,
but cork oaks are now attracting conserva-
tion interest.)
cork cork oak oak, cork tree noun an evergreen
tree from which cork is harvested. Latin
name: Quercus suber.
corm corm noun a swollen underground plant
stem with a terminal bud, e.g. a crocus
corm
corn corn noun 1. wheat or barley (informal) 2.
US maize
corn corn cob cob noun a seed head of maize.
Also called cob
cornflour cornflour
,
corn
starch
noun
a
type
of
flour extracted from maize grain. It con-
tains a high proportion of starch, and is
used for thickening sauces.
corn corn on the cob on the cob noun a seed head of
maize when used as food
corolla corolla noun a set of petals in a flower
corona corona noun a trumpet-shaped, petal-like
outgrowth in flowers such as narcissi
corrasion corrasion noun the wearing away of rock
by material carried by ice, water or wind
correction correction noun the adjustment or
changing of something to make it correct
correspond correspond verb to write to someone ć
She corresponded with several Russian sci-
entists.
corridor corridor noun ‘ ecological corridor
corrie corrie noun same as cirque
corrode corrode verb to destroy something by a
slow chemical process ć Turbine fuels tend
to corrode the components of the fuel and
combustion systems mainly as a result of
the sulfur and water content of the fuel.
corrosion corrosion noun 1. a process in which the
surface of a material, generally a metal, is
changed by the action of moisture, air or a
chemical 2. erosion of rocks by the action
of chemicals or the weather
corrosive corrosive adjective causing corrosion ć
Sulfuric acid is very corrosive.
cortex cortex noun 1. the tissue in plants be-
tween the outer layer (epidermis) and the
central core (stele) of the stem or root 2. an
outer layer of tissue in the brain, glands or
cells
COSHH COSHH noun UK regulations controlling
substances with known health risks. Full
form Control of Substances Hazardous
to Health (UK Regulations)
cosmic cosmic adjective referring to the cosmos
cosmic cosmic radiation radiation noun ‘ cosmic ray
cosmic ray
48
cosmic cosmic ray ray noun a stream of high-energy particles entering Earth’s atmosphere from space
COMMENT: Primary cosmic rays are of solar origin and their composition reflects the Sun’s own, consisting mainly of neutrons and alpha particles, since the Sun consists mainly of hydrogen and helium. Other cosmic rays appear to come from deep space, especially from supernovae, which accounts for the appearance of heavier nuclei.
cosmopolitan cosmopolitan adjective relating to plants or animals growing or occurring in many different parts of the world
cosmos cosmos noun the whole universe
cost-benefit cost-benefit analysis analysis noun an economic examination of the advantages and disadvantages of a specific course of action
cost-benefit cost-benefit ratio ratio noun a comparison of the cost to its benefits
cost-effectiveness cost-effectiveness noun the measurement of how cost-effective something is
cost cost of living of living noun the level of prices of the basic necessities of life such as food, clothing, shelter and fuel ć The cost of living has risen by 2% over the last year.
cotton cotton grass grass noun a plant with white fluffy flower heads that grows in boggy ground. Latin name: Eriophorum angustifolium.
cottonwood cottonwood noun a kind of poplar tree. Genus: Populis.
cotyledon cotyledon noun the green plant structure resembling a leaf that appears as a seed germinates and before the true leaves appear, developing from the embryo of the seed
count count noun the process of totalling a number of items
countershading countershading noun a type of animal coloration where the back is darker than the belly, making it more difficult to see the animal’s shape clearly
country country noun 1. a politically independent nation or state 2. same as countryside
country country code code noun a voluntary code of conduct for people spending leisure time in the countryside, which indicates how to respect the natural environment and avoid causing damage to it
country country park park noun an area in the countryside set aside for the public to visit and enjoy leisure activities. ı national park
country country planning planning noun the activity of organising how land is to be used in the countryside and the amount and type of building there will be. Also called rural
planning
countryside countryside noun the land that sur-
rounds towns and built-up areas
Countryside Countryside Agency Agency noun a statutory
body funded by Defra with the aim of mak-
ing life better for people in the countryside.
It is the statutory advisor on landscape is-
sues and was formed by merging the Coun-
tryside Commission with parts of the Rural
Development Commission, but is to be re-
organised.
Countryside and Rights of Way Countryside and Rights of Way Act Act noun legislation passed by the UK
government in 2000 that gave the public
greater freedom of access to privately
owned areas of uncultivated land and
strengthened legislation protecting wild-
life. Abbr CROW Act
Countryside Commission Countryside Commission
noun a
former organisation in the UK, which su-
pervised countryside planning and recrea-
tion. It was particularly concerned with Na-
tional Parks and Areas of Outstanding Nat-
ural Beauty.
Countryside Countryside Commission for Scotland
Commission
for
Scotland noun an organisation in Scot-
land concerned with the protection of the
countryside and with setting up country
parks for public recreation. It is part of
Scottish National Heritage.
Countryside Council for Wales Countryside Council for Wales
noun a statutory advisory body of the UK
government responsible for sustaining nat-
ural beauty, wildlife and outdoor leisure
opportunities in Wales and its coastal areas.
Abbr CCW
countryside management countryside management
noun the
study and practice of environmental con-
servation in association with rural enter-
prise, countryside access and recreational
activities
Countryside Management Scheme Countryside Management Scheme
noun in Northern Ireland, a system of pay-
ments designed to encourage landowners
and farmers to adopt, or to continue with,
environmentally sensitive farming practic-
es
countryside countryside recreation recreation noun leisure
activities that take place in the countryside.
Also called rural recreation
countryside recreation site countryside recreation site
noun a
location visited or used by tourists in the
countryside, e.g. a national park, heritage
coast, cycle path or watersports facility
countryside stewardship countryside stewardship
noun the
practice of altering farming practices to
benefit wildlife and retain natural diversity.
Abbr CSS
49
crocoite
Countryside Stewardship Scheme Countryside Stewardship Scheme noun in England and Wales, a system of payments made to landowners and farmers who alter their farming practices to benefit the natural environment and maintain biodiversity
‘The Defra-funded Countryside Stewardship and Environmentally Sensitive Areas schemes help to maintain and enhance the biodiversity and landscape value of farmed land, protect historic features and promote public access. (Delivering the evidence. Defra’s Science and Innovation Strategy, 2003–06)’
Countryside Vegetation System Countryside Vegetation System noun a standard classification of common vegetation types in Britain into 8 major and ultimately 100 smaller vegetation classes. Abbr CVS (NOTE: The major classes are:
crops and weeds, tall grass and herb, fertile grassland, infertile grassland, lowland wooded, upland wooded, moorland grass, and heath and bog.)
country country stewardship stewardship noun ‘ country-
side stewardship
coupe coupe noun an area of a forest in which trees have been cut down
course course noun 1. a set of actions taken in a particular situation ć What course of action do you recommend? 2. the development of events over a period of time ć the usual course of the disease ˽ in the normal course of events usually
cover cover noun 1. something that goes over something else completely 2. the amount of soil surface covered with plants. ı ground
cover
cover cover crop crop noun 1. a crop sown to cover the soil and prevent it from drying out and being eroded (NOTE: When the cover crop
has served its purpose, it is usually ploughed in, so leguminous plants which are able to enrich the soil are often used as cover crops.) 2. a crop grown to give protection to another crop that is sown with it ć In the tropics, bananas can be used as a cover crop for cocoa. 3. a crop grown to give cover to game birds
CPRE CPRE noun a UK charity that campaigns for rural areas to be protected. Full form
Campaign to Protect Rural England
Cr Cr symbol chromium
CR CR abbr critically endangered
craft craft noun a practical skill ć a revival of country crafts such as basket-making
crater crater noun a round depression at the top of a volcano
creek creek noun a narrow tidal inlet on a sea coast
creep creep noun 1. gradual change 2. a slow movement of soil down a slope í verb to move slowly or without being noticed creeper creeper noun 1. a plant that spread or climbs by clinging to a surface, forming roots at each node of long shoots 2. a small insectivorous bird of the northern hemisphere that climbs in trees. Family: Certhidae. creosote creosote noun a yellowish brown oily substance with a characteristic smell, derived from wood tar and formerly used as a wood preservative (NOTE: It is now banned
in the European Union.)
crest crest noun 1. the highest point on the top of an object 2. the highest point of a hill or mountain ridge 3. a growth on the head of a bird or other animal 4. the white top of a wave crested crested adjective referring to a bird or other animal with a crest ć a crested newt crevasse crevasse noun a large crack in a glacier
crevice crevice noun a crack or little hole in rock crisis crisis noun a time when things are in a very bad state ć a crisis caused by drought
(NOTE: The plural is crises)
criterion criterion noun a standard by which something is defined, decided or judged (NOTE:
The plural is criteria.)
critical critical adjective referring to a crisis ć critical conditions
critical critical factor factor noun something in the environment which causes a sudden change to occur, e.g. the introduction of a pollutant or a drop in temperature critical critical link link noun an organism in a food chain which is responsible for taking up and storing nutrients which are then passed on down the chain critical critical load load noun the highest level of pollution which will not cause permanent harm to the environment critically critically endangered endangered adjective referring to a species facing a high risk of becoming extinct, usually taken to be when there are fewer than 50 mature individuals. Abbr CR critical critical point point, critical state noun a moment at which a substance undergoes a change in temperature, volume or pressure critical critical threshold threshold noun the point at which a species is likely to become extinct criticise criticise verb to say what is wrong with something ć The report criticised the safety procedures. crocoite crocoite noun an orange mineral containing lead chromate. Formula: PbCrO4.
crop
50
crop crop noun 1. a plant grown for food 2. a yield of produce from plants ć The tree has produced a heavy crop of apples. ć The first crop was a failure. ć The rice crop has failed. 3. the bag-shaped part of a bird’s throat where food is stored before digestion í verb (of plants) to produce fruit ć a new strain of rice which crops heavily
crop crop breeding breeding noun the development of new varieties of crops
crop crop dusting dusting noun the practice of applying insecticide, herbicide or fungicide to crops in the form of a fine dust or spray. Also called crop spraying
cropland cropland noun agricultural land which is used for growing crops
crop crop relative relative noun a wild plant that is genetically related to a crop plant
crop crop rotation rotation noun a system of cultivation where crops such as cereals and oilseed rape that need different nutrients and/or management are grown one after the other
crop crop spraying spraying noun same as crop dust-
ing
cross cross verb to produce a new form of plant or animal from two different breeds, varieties or species ć They crossed two strains of rice to produce a new strain which is highly resistant to disease. í noun 1. an act of crossing two plants or animals ć made a cross between two strains of cattle 2. a new form of plant or animal bred from two different breeds, varieties or species
crossbred crossbred adjective having been bred from two parents with different characteristics ć a herd of crossbred sheep
crossbreed crossbreed noun an animal bred from two different pure breeds í verb to produce new breeds of animals by mating animals of different pure breeds
cross-compliance cross-compliance noun the setting of environmental conditions that must be met when developing agricultural support policies, especially in the European Union. Also called environmental conditionality
cross-fertilisation cross-fertilisation noun the fertilising of one individual plant by another of the same species
crossing crossing noun the breeding of plants or animals from two different breeds or varieties
cross-pollination cross-pollination noun the pollination of a flower with pollen from another plant of the same species. Compare self-pollina-
tion (NOTE: The pollen goes from the anther of one plant to the stigma of another.)
cross-section cross-section noun 1. a typical representative range ć The group included a cross-section of backgrounds and age groups. 2. a view of an object seen as if cut through ć a cross-section of a leaf CROW CROW Act Act abbr Countryside and Rights of Way Act crown crown noun the top part of a plant where the main growing point is ć protecting the crowns from frost ć The disease first affects the lower branches, leaving the crowns still growing. crown crown cover cover noun the area of land shaded by the branches and leaves of a tree crown-of-thorns crown-of-thorns noun 1. a large starfish which lives on coral and destroys reefs 2. one of various thorny plants Cruciferae Cruciferae noun former name for
Brassicaceae
crude crude adjective in a natural or original state and not treated or improved in any way ć crude results ć crude products crude crude oil oil noun oil before it is refined and processed into petrol and other products crusher crusher noun a machine for breaking down material such as rock, ore or seed into smaller pieces crust crust noun 1. a hard top layer 2. the top layer of the surface of the Earth, which is formed of rock Crustacea Crustacea noun a class of animals which have hard shells which are shed periodically as the animals grow crustacean crustacean noun an invertebrate animal with a hard chalky outer shell, several pairs of jointed legs and eyes on stalks. Subphylum: Crustacea. (NOTE: Crabs, lobsters,
barnacles and woodlice are all crusta-
ceans.)
crustaceous crustaceous adjective referring to crustaceans cryogenic cryogenic adjective referring to very low temperatures cryophilous cryophilous adjective referring to a plant that needs a period of cold weather to grow properly cryophyte cryophyte noun a plant which lives in cold conditions, such as in snow cryopreservation cryopreservation noun the storage of biological material at very low temperatures cryosphere cryosphere noun the frozen part of the Earth’s surface cryptic cryptic coloration coloration noun a pattern of colouring which makes an animal less easy to see, e.g. stripes on a zebra crypto- crypto- prefix hidden
51
cuspate foreland
cryptobiosis cryptobiosis noun a form of dormancy where the animal remains dormant for a very long period, found in animals which live in moss cryptogam cryptogam noun an organism that reproduces by means of spores, e.g. mosses or fungi cryptogamic cryptogamic adjective referring to cryptogams cryptosporidium cryptosporidium noun a single-celled organism that can infect humans, usually found in contaminated water cryptozoic cryptozoic adjective referring to animals which live hidden in holes in rocks or trees or under stones crystal crystal noun a regular geometric shape formed by minerals, or as water freezes crystalline crystalline adjective formed of crystals Cs Cs symbol caesium CSS CSS abbr Countryside Stewardship Scheme Cu Cu symbol copper cubic cubic centimetre centimetre, cubic foot, cubic inch, cubic metre, cubic yard noun the volume of a cube whose edge measures one centimetre, foot, inch, metre or yard, respectively cull cull verb to reduce the numbers of wild animals by killing them in a controlled way ć Deer may have to be culled each year to control the numbers on the hills. cullet cullet noun broken glass collected for recycling culm culm noun 1. the stem of a grass which bears flowers 2. a type of waste from an anthracite processing plant cultch cultch noun waste material placed in the sea to act as a breeding ground for oysters cultivar cultivar noun a variety of a plant that has been developed under cultivation and that does not occur naturally in the wild cultivate cultivate verb 1. to grow crops ć Potatoes are cultivated as the main crop. 2. to dig and manure the soil ready for growing crops ć The fields are cultivated in the autumn, ready for sowing wheat.
cultivated cultivated land land noun land that has been dug or prepared for growing crops cultivation cultivation noun the action of cultivating land or plants ˽ to take land out of cultivation to stop cultivating land or growing crops on it and allow it to lie fallow cultivator cultivator noun 1. a person who cultivates land 2. an instrument or small machine for cultivating small areas of land cultural cultural adjective referring to agricultural techniques
cultural cultural control control noun the control of pests using various agricultural techniques such as crop rotation
culture culture noun a microorganism or tissues grown in a culture medium í verb to grow a microorganism or tissue in a culture medium. ı subculture
culvert culvert noun a covered drain for water
cumulative cumulative adjective produced by being added in small, regular amounts ć The cumulative effect of these chemicals is considerable over time.
cumulative cumulative impacts impacts plural noun the effects of a group of activities throughout an area or region, although each individual effect may not be significant on its own, including the effects of any future activities that may reasonably be expected to take place
cumulonimbus cumulonimbus noun a dark low cumulus cloud associated with thunderstorms ć A cumulonimbus has a characteristic anvil shape. Abbr CB
cumulus cumulus noun a quantity of big, fluffy, white or grey clouds heaped or piled up, which develop at low altitude ć Grey cumulus often develop into cumulonimbus. ć Cumulus clouds may develop because of thermal activity resulting from the warming of the surface.
curie curie noun a former unit of measurement of radioactivity, now replaced by the becquerel. Symbol Ci
current current noun a flow of water, air or electricity ć Dangerous currents make fishing difficult near the coast. ć A warm westerly current of air is blowing across the country.
Curry Curry Report Report noun a UK government report published in 2002 after a major outbreak of foot and mouth disease. It recommended radical changes to the agriculture and food industries, looking forward to a profitable sustainable future for farming in providing good food for consumers who place increasing emphasis on a healthy diet as well as caring for the environment.
curvature curvature of the earth of the earth noun the visible curving of the horizon, seen most clearly at sea
curve curve noun a smoothly bending line, as on a graph
cusp cusp noun the point where two arcs of a curve meet
cuspate cuspate foreland foreland noun a large triangular area of deposits made by the sea on a coast
cuticle
52
cuticle cuticle noun 1. a thin waxy protective layer on plants 2. the outer layer of skin in animals
cutting cutting noun a small piece of a plant from which a new plant will grow
CVS CVS abbr Countryside Vegetation System
cwm cwm noun ‘ cirque cyanide cyanide noun a salt of hydrocyanic acid
cyanobacterium cyanobacterium noun a bacterium of a large group that carry out photosynthesis. Family: Cyanophyta. Former name blue-
green alga
cyanocobalamin cyanocobalamin noun vitamin B12 Cyanophyta Cyanophyta noun a group of blue-green algae, usually found in fresh water, which store starch in the form of glycogen cycad cycad noun a tropical plant that has an unbranched trunk with large divided leaves growing from the top and cones
cycle cycle noun 1. a series of actions which end at the same point as they begin ć the life cycle of a moth ć A biennial plant completes its life cycle within two years. 2. a series of events which recur regularly ć Industrial waste upsets the natural nutrient cycle. cycle cycle path path noun a track alongside a road, or a marked strip at the side of a road, along which only bicycles may be ridden
cyclical cyclical adjective occurring in cycles ć Off-shore and on-shore wind patterns are cyclical. cyclo- cyclo- prefix cyclic
cyclone cyclone noun 1. an area of low pressure around which the air turns in the same direction as the Earth. ı anticyclone 2. a device which removes solid particles from waste gases produced during industrial processes cyclonic cyclonic adjective referring to a cyclone ˽ in a cyclonic direction flowing in the same direction as the rotation of the Earth cyclonically cyclonically adverb in a cyclonic direction ć Waterspouts rotate cyclonically, that
is anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. cyto- cyto- prefix cell cytochemistry cytochemistry noun the study of the chemical activity of living cells cytogenetics cytogenetics noun a branch of genetics which studies the structure and function of cells, especially chromosomes cytology cytology noun the study of the structure and function of cells cytolysis cytolysis noun the breaking down of cells cytoplasm cytoplasm noun a jelly-like substance inside the cell membrane which surrounds the nucleus of a cell cytoplasmic cytoplasmic adjective referring to the cytoplasm of a cell cytotoxic cytotoxic adjective harmful or fatal to living cells (NOTE: Cells that kill other cells as part of the immune response are de-
scribed as cytotoxic.)
cytotoxin cytotoxin noun a substance which has a toxic effect on living cells
D
DACTARI DACTARI noun a pilot scheme set up to assess the implications of exotic diseases in dogs and cats travelling into the UK. Full form Dog and Cat Travel and Risk Infor-
mation
dam dam noun 1. a construction built to block a river in order to channel the flow of water into a hydroelectric power station or to regulate the water supply to an irrigation scheme 2. the female parent of an animal, usually a domestic animal
COMMENT: Dams are constructed either to channel the flow of water into hydroelectric power stations or to regulate the water supply to irrigation schemes. Dams can have serious environmental effects: the large lake behind the dam may alter the whole climate of a region; the large heavy mass of water in the lake may trigger earth movements if the rock beneath is unstable; in tropical areas, dams encourage the spread of bacteria, insects and parasites, leading to an increase in diseases; dams may increase salinity in watercourses and retain silt which otherwise would be carried down the river and be deposited as fertile soil in the plain below; dams may also deprive downstream communities or countries of water, leading to regional tensions.
damage damage noun the harm done to something ć environmental damage
damp damp off off verb to die from a fungus infection which spreads in warm damp conditions and attacks the roots and lower stems of seedlings
dangerous dangerous substance substance noun a substance which is particularly hazardous because of any of 14 features such as toxicity, flammability, bioaccumulation potential or persistence
DARDNI DARDNI abbr Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, Northern Ireland
Darrius Darrius Rotator Rotator noun a type of verticalaxis wind turbine that has thin blades
Darwin, Darwin, Charles Charles (1809–92) a scientist known for the theory of evolution proposed in his book On the Origin of Species that described how species gradually change and evolve to succeed in their environment
Darwinian Darwinian fitness fitness noun a measure of the success of organisms at passing on their genes to subsequent generations
Darwinism Darwinism
,
Darwinian
theory
noun
the
theory of evolution, formulated by Charles
Darwin, which states that species of organ-
isms arose by natural selection. ı neo-Dar-
winism
data data plural noun factual information ć
The data show that a chemical change
takes place. ć The data show that the
number of plants in the population has in-
creased. (NOTE: The singular is datum)
data data analysis analysis noun the extraction of in-
formation and results from data
database database noun an integrated collection
of files of data stored in a structured form in
a large memory, which can be accessed by
one or more users at different terminals
daylength daylength noun ‘ photoperiod
daylight daylight noun the light of the sun during
the day
dB dB abbr decibel
dBA dBA scale scale abbr decibel A scale
DC DC abbr direct current
DDT DDT noun an insecticide that was formerly
used especially against malaria-carrying
mosquitoes. It is now banned in many
countries because of its toxicity and ability
to accumulate in the environment. Formu-
la: C14H9Cl5. Full form dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DDT-resistant DDT-resistant insect insect noun an insect
that has developed resistance to DDT
DE DE abbr diatomaceous earth
deactivate deactivate verb to turn off a system or a
piece of equipment, stopping it from being
ready to operate
de-aerator de-aerator noun a device to remove gas
from a liquid
death death rate rate noun the number of deaths per
year, shown per 1000 of a population ć a
death rate of 15 per 1000 ć an increase in
the death rate Also called mortality rate
debacle debacle noun the breaking up of ice on a
large river as it melts in spring
debris debris noun rubbish or waste matter ć
volcanic debris from the eruption ć Check
that the area is free of stones and other de-
bris.
decay decay noun a process by which tissues be-
come rotten and decompose, caused by the
action of microorganisms and oxygen ć
The soft leaves will gradually decay on the
dechannelise
54
compost heap í verb 1. (of organic matter)
to rot or decompose 2. (of radioactive
matter) to disintegrate
dechannelise dechannelise
,
dechannelize
verb
to
make a river return to its original place and
pattern of flow
dechlorination dechlorination noun removal of chlo-
rine and its replacement with hydrogen or
with hydroxide ions to detoxify a substance
decibel decibel noun a unit for measuring the
power of a sound or the strength of a signal.
The decibel scale is logarithmic. Abbr dB
decibel decibel A scale A scale noun an international
scale of noise level
deciduous deciduous adjective referring to trees
that shed all their leaves in one season ć
beech, oak and other deciduous trees ć de-
ciduous woodlands
deciduous deciduous forest forest noun a wooded area
composed mainly of broadleaved trees that
lose all their leaves during one season.
Such forests are found in regions with a
temperate climate that have a winter and
rainfall throughout the year.
decimate decimate verb 1. to reduce something se-
verely ć Overfishing has decimated the
herring population in the North Sea. 2. to
reduce by one in ten
decision decision framework framework noun a method of
organising and evaluating information,
leading eventually to the making of a deci-
sion
decline decline noun a process of becoming less
ć The decline in the number of cases of pol-
lution is due to better policing of factory
emissions. ć The population of these birds
now seems to be on the decline. ć Ecolo-
gists are working to diagnose forest decline
in its early stages. ˽ decline in population
reduction in the number of organisms liv-
ing in one place í verb to become less ć
The fish population declined sharply as the
water became more acid.
decommission decommission verb to shut down a nu-
clear reactor or a power station
decommissioning decommissioning noun the process of
shutting down a power station
decommissioning decommissioning waste waste noun radio-
active material no longer needed as a result
of the shutting down of a nuclear reactor or
a nuclear power station
decomposable decomposable adjective referring to a
substance which can be broken down into
simple chemical compounds
decompose decompose verb (of organic material ) to
break down into simple chemical com-
pounds by the action of sunlight, water or
bacteria and fungi
decomposer decomposer noun an organism which feeds on dead organic matter and breaks it down into simple chemicals, e.g. a fungus or bacterium
decomposition decomposition noun the process of breaking down into simple chemical compounds
decontaminate decontaminate verb to remove a harmful substance such as poison or radioactive material from a building, a watercourse, a person’s clothes or some other place
decontamination decontamination noun the removal of a harmful substance such as poison or radioactive material from a building, a watercourse, a person’s clothes or some other place
decrease decrease noun a lessening or reduction ć a decrease in power ˽ on the decrease becoming less í verb to become less ć Air density and pressure decrease with an increase in altitude. Opposite increase
deductive deductive reasoning reasoning noun the process of drawing conclusions from observations of the natural world by using logical reasoning. Compare inductive reasoning
deep deep ecology ecology noun an extreme form of ecological thinking in which humans are considered as only one species among many in the environment and large numbers of humans are seen as harmful to the environment in which they live
deep-freezing deep-freezing noun long-term storage at temperatures below freezing point (NOTE:
Many crops such as peas and beans are grown specifically for commercial deepfreezing.)
deep-litter deep-litter noun a system of using straw, wood shavings, sawdust or peat moss for bedding poultry or cattle
deep-sea deep-sea adjective referring to the deepest part of the sea a long way from land
defensive defensive mutualism mutualism noun a relationship between two species in which one protects the other from a predator
deficiency deficiency noun a lack of something
deficiency deficiency disease disease noun a disease caused by the lack of an essential element in the diet, e.g. vitamins or essential amino acids and fatty acids
deficient deficient adjective lacking something essential ć The soil is deficient in important nutrients. ć Scrub plants are well adapted to this moisture-deficient habitat. ć She has a calcium-deficient diet.
deficit deficit noun a situation in which the amount going out is larger than the amount coming in
55
-deme
definitive definitive host host noun a host on which a
parasite settles permanently
deflate deflate verb to allow air to escape from
something such as a tyre or balloon so that
it becomes smaller or collapses ć To de-
flate a tyre, remove or depress the valve and
allow the air to escape. Opposite inflate
defoliant defoliant noun a type of herbicide which
makes the leaves fall off plants
defoliate defoliate verb to make the leaves fall off
a plant, especially by using a herbicide or as
the result of disease or other stress
defoliation defoliation noun the loss of leaves from
a plant, especially as the result of using a
herbicide or because of disease or other
stress
deforest deforest verb to cut down forest trees
from an area for commercial purposes or to
make arable land ć Timber companies have
helped to deforest the tropical regions. ć
About 40000 square miles are deforested
each year.
deforestation deforestation noun the cutting down of
forest trees for commercial purposes or to
make arable or pasture land
Defra Defra abbr Department for Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs
degas degas verb to remove gas from something
such as a borehole
degassing degassing noun the removal of gas from
something such as a borehole
degradable degradable adjective referring to a sub-
stance which can be broken down into its
separate elements. ı biodegradable
degradation degradation noun 1. a reduction in the
quality of something ć Chemical degrada-
tion of the land can be caused by overuse of
fertilisers and by pollutants from industrial
processes. ˽ degradation of air the pollu-
tion of the air 2. the decomposition of a
chemical compound into its elements
degradative succession degradative succession
noun the
colonisation and subsequent decomposi-
tion of dead organic matter by fungi and
microorganisms
degrade degrade verb 1. to reduce the quality of
something ć The land has been degraded
through overgrazing. ć Ozone may worsen
nutrient leaching by degrading the water-
resistant coating on pine needles. 2. to
make a chemical compound decompose
into its elements
degreaser degreaser noun a device for removing
grease and oil
degree degree noun 1. a level, amount or quanti-
ty ć The degree of compression is insuffi-
cient. ć Manufacturers aim for a high de-
gree of safety. ˽ to a certain degree, to some degree partly ˽ to a minor degree in
a small way 2. a unit of temperature ć twenty degrees Centigrade (20°C) Symbol
° ˽ degree Celsius unit of measurement on
a scale of temperature where the freezing and boiling points of water are 0° and 100°,
respectively. ı Celsius ˽ degree Fahren-
heit unit of measurement on a scale of temperature where the freezing and boiling points of water are 32° and 212°, respectively 3. a unit of measurement of an angle equal to 1/360th of a circle. Symbol ° (NOTE: Each degree is divided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds.)
dehisce dehisce verb (of a ripe seed pod, fruit or capsule) to burst open to allow seeds or spores to scatter
dehiscence dehiscence noun the sudden bursting of a seed pod, fruit or capsule when it is ripe, allowing the seeds or spores to scatter
dehiscent dehiscent adjective referring to seed pods, fruit or capsules which burst open to allow the seeds or spores to scatter. Compare indehiscent
dehumidifier dehumidifier noun a machine which removes the moisture from air, often part of an air-conditioning system
dehydrate dehydrate verb 1. to lose water, or to make something lose water ć dehydrated foods 2. to lose water from the body ć After two days without food or drink, he became severely dehydrated.
dehydration dehydration noun 1. loss of water, or the removal of water from something ć preservation of food by dehydration 2. loss of water from the body
deinking deinking noun the process of removing the ink from waste newspaper to allow it to be recycled
deinking deinking unit unit noun a factory or machine which removes the ink from waste newspaper
deintensified deintensified farming farming noun farming which was formerly intensive, using chemical fertilisers to increase production, but has now become extensive
delta delta noun a triangular piece of land at the mouth of a large river formed of silt carried by the river ć the Nile Delta ć the Mississippi Delta
deltaic deltaic deposit deposit noun a deposit of silt in a river delta
deme deme noun a population of organisms in a small area
-deme -deme suffix a section of a population which has distinctive characteristics
demersal
56
demersal demersal adjective referring to fish
which live on or near the seabed. Compare
pelagic
demineralisation demineralisation
,
demineralization
noun the removal of salts which are dis-
solved in water
demineralise demineralise
,
demineralize
verb
to
re-
move dissolved salts from water
demographic demographic adjective referring to de-
mography
demographic demographic transition transition noun the pat-
tern of change of population growth from
high birth and death rates to low birth and
death rates
demography demography noun the study of human
populations and their development
denaturation denaturation noun 1. making something
change its nature 2. converting a protein
into an amino acid
denature denature verb 1. to add a poisonous sub-
stance to alcohol to make it unsuitable for
humans to drink 2. to change the natural
structure of a protein or nucleic acid by
high temperature, chemicals or extremes of
pH 3. to add an isotope to fissile material to
make it unsuitable for use in nuclear weap-
ons 4. to make something change its nature
5. to convert a protein into an amino acid
dendrite dendrite noun a crystal that has branched
in two as it grows
dendritic dendritic adjective with branched parts
dendrochronology dendrochronology noun a scientific
method of finding the age of wood by the
study of tree rings
dendroclimatology dendroclimatology noun the study of
climate over many centuries, as shown in
tree rings
COMMENT: Because tree rings vary in width depending on the weather during a specific year, it has been possible to show
a pattern of yearly growth which applies to all wood from the same region. This method allows old structures to be dated even more accurately than with carbon-dating
systems. It is also possible to chart past changes in climate in the same way, as rings vary in thickness according to climatic conditions, allowing scientists to compare the climatic changes in various parts
of the world over a very long period of time.
dendrological dendrological adjective referring to
dendrology
dendrology dendrology noun the study of trees
denitrification denitrification noun the releasing of ni-
trogen from nitrates in the soil by the action
of bacteria
denizen denizen noun a non-native plant or ani-
mal that grows or lives in a specific area
dense dense adjective referring to a substance
which is closely pressed together
densely densely populated populated adjective having
many humans or other organisms inhabit-
ing the same area
density density noun 1. the quantity of mass per
unit of volume ć air density 2. the number
of individuals in a specific area
density density dependence dependence noun a situation
in which an aspect or feature of a popula-
tion varies with population density
density-dependent density-dependent adjective referring
to a situation where an aspect or feature of
a population varies with population density
ć density-dependent population regulation
density-independent density-independent adjective refer-
ring to a situation where an aspect or fea-
ture of a population does not vary with pop-
ulation density ć density-independent mor-
tality
dentate dentate adjective same as toothed
denudation denudation noun the process of making
land or rock bare by cutting down trees or
by erosion
denude denude verb to make land or rock bare by
cutting down trees and other plants or by
erosion ć The timber companies have de-
nuded the mountains.
deoxygenate deoxygenate verb to remove oxygen
from water or air ć The weed rapidly deox-
ygenates watercourses, killing fish and oth-
er aquatic life.
deoxygenation deoxygenation noun the removal of ox-
ygen from water or air
deoxyribonucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid
noun ‘ RNA.
Full form of DNA
Department for Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs noun the UK
government department responsible for ru-
ral affairs in England and Wales. Abbr De-
fra
‘Defra was created to focus and lead the Govern-
ment’s wider approach to sustainable develop-
ment and specifically to address this aim for the
environment, the food industry and rural econo-
mies and communities. (Delivering the evidence.
Defra’s Science and Innovation Strategy, 2003–
06)’
dependency dependency ratio ratio noun a measure of
the number of children and old people that
each 100 people of working age have to
support
dependent dependent adjective affected by or vary-
ing with something else ć The output is de-
pendent on the physical state of the link.
deplete deplete verb to remove a resource from
something
depletion depletion noun the removal of a resource
from something ć a study of atmospheric
57
design
ozone depletion ć Production of ice crystals from methane can deplete ozone still further.
deploy deploy verb to use something ć They needed to deploy more resources to complete the review on time.
depollution depollution noun the removal of pollution from a contaminated area
deposit deposit noun 1. a layer of metal, coal or other substance that occurs in the ground ć Deposits of coal have been found in the north of the country. 2. a quantity of material moved from one place on the Earth’s surface to another by natural agents such as wind or water ć deposits of silt ć glacial deposits 3. a thin layer or coating on an inner or outer surface ć deposits of red dust ć fatty deposits in the arteries 4. a fee that is added to the price of a product and refunded when the used product is returned for recycling í verb to coat a surface with a thin layer of a substance
depository depository noun a place where something is stored, e.g. refuse or nuclear waste ć They carried out tests to establish the suitability of the rock formation as a waste depository.
depot depot noun a place or building where something is stored ć There has been a fire at the oil depot.
depression depression noun 1. an area of low atmospheric pressure. Also called low 2. a lower area on a surface that is often difficult to see ć A depression on the wing surface must be investigated in case it is an indication of more serious structural damage.
depth depth noun the distance from the top surface of something to the bottom ć The troposphere’s depth is variable in temperate latitudes. ˽ the water is two metres in depth the water is two metres deep
depth depth of rainfall of rainfall noun a measurement of the amount of rain which has fallen
derelict derelict adjective 1. referring to land which has been damaged and made ugly by mining or other industrial processes, or which has been neglected and is not used for anything ć a plan to reclaim derelict inner city sites 2. referring to a building which is neglected and in ruins ć derelict factories
dereliction dereliction noun 1. a state of being damaged or neglected 2. a failure to do what you ought to do ć dereliction of duty
derivative derivative noun a substance or product which is formed from something else
dermal dermal adjective referring to the skin
derris derris noun a powdered insecticide extracted from the root of a tropical plant, used against fleas, lice and aphids
desalinate desalinate verb to remove salt from a substance such as sea water or soil
desalination desalination noun the removal of salt from a substance such as sea water or soil
COMMENT: Desalination may be used to removing salt from sea water to make it drinkable. Desalination plants work by distillation, dialysis or by freeze drying. The process is only cost-effective where the supplies of fresh water are very small.
desert desert noun an area of land with very little rainfall, arid soil and little or no vegetation
COMMENT: A desert will be formed in areas where rainfall is less than 25 cm per annum whether the region is hot or cold. About 30% of all the land surface of the Earth is desert or in the process of becoming desert. The spread of desert conditions in arid and semi-arid regions is caused not only by climatic conditions, but also by human pressures. So overgrazing of pasture and the clearing of forest for fuel and for cultivation both lead to the loss of organic material, a reduction in rainfall by evaporation and soil erosion.
desert desert formation formation noun same as deser-
tification
desertification desertification noun the process by which an area of land becomes a desert because of a change of climate or because of the action of humans, e.g. through intensive farming ć Changes in the amount of sunlight reflected by different vegetation may contribute to desertification. ć Increased tilling of the soil, together with long periods of drought, have brought about the desertification of the area.
‘Desertification, broadly defined, is one of the principal barriers to sustainable food security and sustainable livelihoods in our world today’ [Environmental Conservation]
desertify desertify verb to make land into a desert ć It is predicted that half the country will be desertified by the end of the century.
desiccant desiccant noun 1. a substance which dries something 2. a type of herbicide which makes leaves wither and die
desiccate desiccate verb to dry out
desiccation desiccation noun 1. the act or process of removing water 2. the act of drying out the soil ć The greenhouse effect may lead to climatic changes such as the desiccation of large areas.
design design noun the planning or drawing of something before it is constructed or manufactured ć product design and develop-
designate
58
ment ć a creative garden design ć She
works in design.
designate designate verb to name something offi-
cially or appoint someone to a position of-
ficially ć The city centre has been desig-
nated a traffic-free zone.
desk desk study study noun an investigation of rel-
evant available facts and figures, often be-
fore starting practical study of a problem
destroy destroy verb to damage something so se-
verely that it cannot recover ć At this rate,
all virgin rainforests will have been de-
stroyed by the year 2020. ć The building of
the motorway will destroy several areas of
scientific importance.
destruction destruction noun the act of severely
damaging something ć The destruction of
the habitat has led to the almost complete
extinction of the species.
desulfurisation desulfurisation
,
desulphurisation
noun the process of removing sulfur from a
substance such as oil, iron ore or coal
detect detect verb 1. to notice something that is
not obvious ć She detected a slight smell of
gas. 2. to discover the existence of some-
thing using scientific methods and equip-
ment ć The equipment can detect very faint
signals.
detectable detectable adjective which can be de-
tected ć The increase in the amount of car-
bon dioxide, together with trace gases such
as methane and nitrogen oxide, is likely to
cause a detectable global warming.
detection detection noun the discovery of the pres-
ence of something
detection detection limit limit noun the smallest
amount of a substance, noise, etc., that can
be detected
detergent detergent noun a cleaning substance
which removes grease and bacteria from
the surface of something (NOTE: The first
detergents contained alkyl benzenesul-
fonate which does not degrade on contact
with bacteria and so passed into sewage,
creating large amounts of foam in sewers
and rivers.)
detergent detergent foam foam noun a large mass of
froth on the surface of rivers, canals and
sewers, caused by detergent in effluent
detergent detergent swans swans plural noun ‘ deter-
gent foam
deteriorate deteriorate verb to become worse ć The
quality of the water in the river has deteri-
orated since the construction of factories
on its banks. ć The electrolyte in the cells
of a nickel-cadmium battery does not chem-
ically react with the plates and so the plates
do not deteriorate.
deterioration deterioration noun the process of be-
coming worse ć The rapid deterioration of
the peri-urban environment gives cause for
concern.
determine determine verb 1. to discover something
by observation, calculation or experiment
ć To determine the average age, divide the
total number of years by the number of peo-
ple. 2. to control or have an effect on some-
thing ć These characteristics are geneti-
cally determined. ć Health is significantly
determined by diet.
detinning detinning noun the removal of a coating
of tin from something
detoxication detoxication
,
detoxification
noun
the
removal of harmful or poisonous substanc-
es
detoxify detoxify verb to remove harmful or poi-
sonous substances from something
detrimental detrimental adjective harmful ć Conser-
vation groups have criticised the introduc-
tion of red deer, a species which is highly
detrimental to local flora.
detrital detrital adjective 1. formed from detritus
2. referring to a crystal which has been un-
covered from weathered rock
detrital detrital food chain food chain noun the link be-
tween green plants and the decomposer or-
ganisms which feed on them
detritivore detritivore noun an organism which
feeds on dead organic matter and breaks it
down into simple chemicals, e.g. a fungus
or bacterium. Also called detrivore, scav-
enger
detritivorous detritivorous adjective referring to an
organism which feeds on dead organic mat-
ter and breaks it down into simple chemi-
cals
detritus detritus noun waste matter which may be
either organic or mineral
detrivore detrivore noun same as detritivore
deuterium deuterium oxide oxide noun water containing
deuterium instead of the hydrogen atom,
used as a coolant or moderator in some
types of nuclear reactor. Formula: D2O. develop develop verb 1. to come into being, or
cause something to come into being ć The
plant soon develops branches. 2. to grow
and change ć During the day, light breezes
may develop into strong winds. ć The
plants develop quickly in the right condi-
tions. 3. to plan and produce something ć
The company is trying to develop a new
pesticide to deal with the problem. 4. to
plan and build on an area of land ć They are
planning to develop the site as an industrial
estate.
59
die down
developed developed country country noun a country which has a high state of industrialisation
developer developer noun a person or company that plans and builds structures such as roads, airports, houses, factories or office buildings ć The land has been acquired by developers for an industrial park.
developing developing country country noun a country which is not fully industrialised
development development noun 1. growth and change ć To study weather and its development, the meteorologist has to be aware of the horizontal changes in atmospheric pressure both in space and time. 2. something new, made as an improvement on something older ć Satellite navigation aids are a useful development. 3. planning and building on an area of land ć They are planning large-scale development of the docklands area.
development development area area noun an area which has been given special help from a government to encourage business and factories to be set up there. Also called development
zone
development development rate rate noun the rate at which a plant or animal grows
development development zone zone noun same as de-
velopment area
deviate deviate verb to be different from the usual or expected pattern or to do something that is different from the usual or expected pattern deviation deviation noun 1. a difference from what is usual or expected 2. the difference between one value in a series and the average of all the values device device noun a machine or piece of equipment ć a device for controlling humidity
dew dew noun drops of condensed moisture left on surfaces overnight in cool places
dewater dewater verb to remove or reduce the water content of something such as sludge
dew dew pond pond noun a small pond of rainwater which forms on high ground in chalky soil DHW DHW abbr domestic hot water
diagnose diagnose verb 1. to identify a disease from symptoms 2. to use scientific methods to discover the cause of a problem or fault
diagnosis diagnosis noun the identification of a disease or problem
diagram diagram noun an often simplified drawing showing the structure or workings of something ć a diagram illustrating a food web ć The diagram shows the life cycle of a fern.
dialysis dialysis noun the use of a semi-permea-
ble membrane as a filter to separate soluble
waste substances from a liquid
diameter diameter noun the distance across the
widest part of a circle or a tube (NOTE: The
diameter passes through the centre.) ˽ less
than 0.5mm in diameter measuring less
than 0.5 mm across the widest part
diapause diapause noun a period of reduced meta-
bolic rate in some animals or insects during
which growth and development are tempo-
rarily suspended, often linked to seasonal
or environmental changes
diatom diatom noun a type of single-celled alga
found in fresh and sea water that has a cell
wall containing silica which forms two
overlapping halves
diatomaceous diatomaceous earth earth noun a mineral
deposit formed from the bodies of diatoms,
used in filters and in the manufacture of
polishes. Also called kieselguhr. Abbr DE
diatomist diatomist noun a scientist who studies
diatoms
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
noun full form of DDT
dichotomous branching dichotomous branching
noun a pat-
tern of plant growth that develops when a
growing point forks into two points that lat-
er divide into two
dichotomous dichotomous key key noun a series of
questions leading to other questions used as
part of the process of identifying an organ-
ism
dicot dicot noun same as dicotyledon
(informal )
dicotyledenous dicotyledenous adjective referring to
dicotyledons
dicotyledon dicotyledon noun a plant with seeds that
have a cotyledon with two parts ć Dicoty-
ledons form the largest group of plants.
Compare monocotyledon. ı cotyledon
die die verb to stop living ć The fish in the
lake died, poisoned by chemical discharge
from the factory. ć Scientists are trying to
find out what is making the trees die. ć Sev-
eral people died after eating the contami-
nated shellfish.
die die back back verb (of plants) to be affected by
the death of a branch or shoot ć Roses may
die back after pruning in frosty weather.
dieback dieback noun 1. a fungal disease of some
plants which kills shoots or branches 2. a
gradual dying of trees starting at the ends of
branches ć Half the trees in the forest are
showing signs of dieback.
die die down down verb 1. to become less strong ć
The strong winds eventually died down. ć
The food safety controversy shows no sign
diel
60
of dying down. 2. to stop growing before
the winter and keep only the parts below
ground until spring (of a plant) ć Herba-
ceous plants die down in autumn.
diel diel adjective referring to a period of 24 hours ć The diel cycle was due to the inter-
action of damage and repair processes.
dieldrin dieldrin noun an organochlorine insecti-
cide which kills on contact (NOTE: It is very
persistent and can kill fish, birds and small
mammals when it enters the food chain. It
is banned in the European Union.)
die die off off verb to die one by one over a period
die die out out verb to become fewer in numbers and eventually cease to exist
diesel diesel noun same as diesel oil
diesel diesel engine engine noun an engine in which
air is compressed in a cylinder causing a
rise in temperature before the introduction of oil which ignites on contact with the hot
air
COMMENT: In a diesel engine, a quantity of oil is pumped to each cylinder in turn. Diesel-engined cars are usually more economical to run, but cause more pollution, especially particulates, than petrol-engined cars.
diesel-engined diesel-engined adjective using a diesel
engine to provide power. Also called die-
sel-powered
diesel diesel oil oil, diesel fuel noun oil used as
fuel in a diesel engine. Also called diesel
diesel-powered diesel-powered adjective same as die-
sel-engined
diet diet noun 1. the amount and type of food eaten ˽ to live on a diet of to eat ć It lives
on a diet of insects and roots. 2. a measured
amount of food eaten to maintain, gain or
lose weight ˽ to be or go on a diet Same as
diet í verb to reduce the quantity or
change the type of food eaten in order to
maintain a sensible weight and become healthier
dietary dietary adjective referring to diet
dietary dietary fibre fibre noun same as roughage
COMMENT: Dietary fibre is found in cereals, nuts, fruit and some green vegetables. It is believed to be necessary to help digestion
and to avoid developing constipation, obesity and appendicitis.
dietary reference values dietary reference values
plural noun
the nutrients that are essential for health,
published as a list by the UK government
dietetic dietetic adjective referring to diet
dietetics dietetics noun the study of food, nutrition and health, especially when applied to
food intake
difference difference noun the way in which two
things are not the same ć Describe the ma-
jor differences between plants and animals.
different different adjective not the same ć Living
in the country is very different from living
in town. ć The landscape looks quite differ-
ent since the mine was opened.
differential differential adjective referring to things
which react differently when measured
against a norm or standard
differential reproduction differential reproduction
noun the
ability to produce more offspring with the
same adaptations as the parents, allowing
the species to survive under changed envi-
ronmental conditions
diffuse diffuse adjective 1. spread out in every di-
rection 2. widespread in effect and without
a single identifiable source ć diffuse pollu-
tion ı non-point source
diffusion diffusion noun 1. the process of spread-
ing out ć Gas from the turbine enters the
exhaust system at high velocities but, be-
cause of high friction losses, the speed of
flow is decreased by diffusion. 2. the mix-
ing of a liquid with another liquid, or of a
gas with another gas 3. the passing of a liq-
uid or gas through a membrane
digest digest verb 1. to break down food and
convert it into elements which can be ab-
sorbed by the body 2. to use bacteria to
process waste, especially organic waste
such as manure, in order to produce biogas
ć 55% of UK sewage sludge is digested. ć
Wastes from food processing plants can be
anaerobically digested.
digester digester noun a device that produces gas
such as methane from refuse
digestible organic matter digestible organic matter
noun an or-
ganic substance which can be processed to
produce biogas, e.g. manure. Abbr DOM
digestion digestion noun 1. the process by which
food is broken down and converted into el-
ements which can be absorbed by the body
2. the conversion of organic matter into
simpler chemical compounds, as in the pro-
duction of biogas from manure
digit digit noun a finger or toe, or a similar body
part
digitate digitate adjective 1. having fingers or
toes, or body parts like fingers or toes 2.
same as palmate
dilation dilation noun an increase in volume
diluent diluent noun a substance which is used to
dilute a liquid
dilute dilute verb to add water or solvent to a liq-
uid to make it weaker. Opposite concen-
trate í adjective with water or solvent add-
ed
61
disintegration
dilute dilute and disperse and disperse noun a method of using landfill sites in which the waste is allowed to leak gradually into the surrounding soil dilution dilution noun 1. the action of diluting a liquid 2. a liquid which has been diluted dilution dilution effect effect noun a strategy adopted by prey to reduce the effect of predators, by which the prey congregates in large numbers so that a predator can only remove a small proportion of the total dimethyl dimethyl sulfide sulfide, dimethyl sulphide noun a gas given off by water which is rich in sewage pollution diminished diminished adjective reduced ć At higher altitudes, ground objects are less easily seen because of diminished size. diode diode noun an electronic component that allows an electrical current to pass in one direction and not the other dioecious dioecious adjective referring to a plant species in which male and female flowers occur on different individuals. ı monoe-
cious
dioxin dioxin noun an extremely poisonous gas. It is formed as a product of waste incineration and some other combustion processes and is also a by-product of the manufacture of the herbicide 2,4,5-T. (NOTE: It is the gas
that escaped in the disaster at Seveso in
1976.)
diploid diploid adjective referring to an organism that has two matched sets of chromosomes in a cell nucleus, one set from each parent
(NOTE: Each species has a characteristic diploid number of chromosomes.)
direct direct current current noun an electric current of constant value that flows in one direction. Abbr DC disaster disaster noun a serious event causing deaths and/or great damage to the environment. Disasters are often classified as either natural, e.g. earthquakes, or manmade, e.g. oil spills. disaster disaster management management noun the policies developed and the actions undertaken to deal with a disaster disc disc floret floret noun a small tubular part among those on the central rounded part of the flower head of a plant belonging to the Compositae, such as a daisy or sunflower. Compare ray floret discharge discharge noun 1. the action of releasing waste material into the environment 2. waste material, such as that from an industrial process or in the form of sewage, that is passed into the environment 3. the rate of flow of a liquid in a channel í verb 1. (of a
river) to flow into a lake or the sea ć The
river Rhine discharges into the North Sea.
2. to pass waste material into the environ-
ment ć The factory discharges ten tonnes
of toxic effluent per day into the river.
disclimax disclimax noun a stable ecological state
which has been caused by human interven-
tion, e.g. a desert caused by deforestation
disclimax disclimax community community noun a stable
plant community which is caused by hu-
man action, e.g. felling a rainforest for tim-
ber. Compare climax
discoloration discoloration
,
discolouration
noun
a
change of colour, especially one caused by
deterioration
discolour discolour verb to change the colour of
something, especially through deteriora-
tion, usually making it paler (NOTE: The US
spelling is discolor.)
discoloured discoloured adjective with a changed
colour, especially through deterioration
discontinuity discontinuity noun 1. a break in a layer
of rock, caused by a fault or erosion 2. a
band in the interior of the Earth which sep-
arates two layers and through which seis-
mic shocks do not pass
discounting discounting noun a method used by
economists to calculate the cost in current
value of a project’s future costs and benefits
disease disease noun an illness of people, ani-
mals or plants ć He caught a disease in the
tropics. ć He is a specialist in occupational
diseases.
diseased diseased adjective affected by a disease
and so not functioning as usual or not
whole ć To treat dieback, diseased branch-
es should be cut back to healthy wood.
disinfect disinfect verb to make something or
somewhere free from microorganisms such
as bacteria ć All utensils must be thorough-
ly disinfected. (NOTE: Disinfect, disinfec-
tion and disinfectant are used for sub-
stances which destroy germs on instru-
ments, objects or the skin.)
disinfectant disinfectant noun a substance used to
kill microorganisms such as bacteria
disinfection disinfection noun the process of making
something or somewhere free from micro-
organisms such as bacteria
disinfest disinfest verb to remove insect or animal
pests from a place
disintegrate disintegrate verb to break into pieces ć
In holocrine glands the cells disintegrate as
they secrete.
disintegration disintegration noun the process of
breaking into pieces ć Electromagnetic ra-
diations resulting from the disintegration of
disjunct
62
radioactive materials are known as gamma
rays.
disjunct disjunct noun a distribution area for an
animal or plant which is split into geo-
graphically different regions
disorder disorder noun a disruption of a system or
balanced state
dispersal dispersal noun the moving of individual
plants or animals into or from an area ć
seed dispersal by wind ć Aphids breed in
large numbers and spread by dispersal in
wind currents.
disperse disperse verb 1. (of organisms) to sepa-
rate and move away over a wide area 2. to
send something out over a wide area ć
Some seeds are dispersed by birds. ć Pow-
er stations have tall chimneys to disperse
the emissions of pollutants.
dispersing dispersing agent agent noun a chemical sub-
stance sprayed onto an oil slick to break up
the oil into smaller particles
dispersion dispersion noun the pattern in which an-
imals or plants are found over a wide area
dispersion dispersion model model noun a mathematical
prediction of how pollutants from a source
will be distributed in the surrounding area
under specific conditions of wind, temper-
ature, humidity and other environmental
factors
disposable disposable adjective thrown away after
use ć disposable syringes
disposal disposal noun the process of getting rid
of something ć The disposal of raw sewage
into the sea contaminates shellfish. ı final
disposal
disposal disposal site site noun same as landfill site
dispose dispose of of verb to get rid of something ć
The problem with nuclear reactors is how
to dispose of the radioactive waste.
disrupt disrupt verb to upset a system or balanced
state ć The storm disrupted the electricity
supply.
disruption disruption noun the process of upsetting
a system or balanced state
disseminate disseminate verb to make information
or knowledge available ć The information
was disseminated widely throughout the or-
ganisation.
dissemination dissemination noun the process of
making information about something avail-
able ć the dissemination of new technology
dissolvable dissolvable
,
dissoluable
adjective
able
to be dissolved
dissolve dissolve verb to become part of a liquid
and form a solution ć Sugar dissolves in
water. ć There is a possibility that gas may
be dissolved into the fluid and thus intro-
duced into the system.
dissolved dissolved oxygen oxygen noun the amount of gaseous oxygen present in water, expressed as either its presence in a volume of water (in milligrams per litre) or its percentage in saturated water. Abbr DO
distal distal adjective away from the centre or point of attachment. Compare proximal
distil distil verb 1. to produce a pure liquid by heating a liquid and condensing the vapour, as in the production of alcohol or essential oils 2. to produce by-products from coal
distillate distillate noun a substance produced by distillation
distillation distillation noun the process of producing a pure liquid by heating a liquid and condensing the vapour, as in the production of alcohol or essential oils
distributary distributary noun a stream or river flowing out from a larger river, as in a delta distribute distribute verb to give something or send something out ć distribute electrical power
distribution distribution noun 1. the process of giving or sending something out ć power distribution systems 2. the pattern in which something is found in various areas, depending on factors such as climate or altitude ć The distribution of crops in various regions of the world is a result of thousands of years of breeding and testing.
distributional distributional effects effects plural noun the net costs and benefits of a policy across the population and economy distribution distribution area area noun a number of places in which a species is found
district district noun a part of an area, especially for administrative purposes
disturb disturb verb to alter the usual condition of something ć Small hills can disturb the flow of air. ć The building of the road has disturbed the balance of the ecosystem.
disturbance disturbance noun 1. an alteration in the usual condition of something ć In general, the higher the mountain and the faster the air flow the greater is the resulting disturbance. 2. a change in an ecosystem caused by an alteration of the environmental conditions, by a process such as drought, pollution or felling of woodland
disturbance disturbance threshold threshold noun the point at which an alteration of the environmental conditions causes change in an ecosystem ditch ditch noun a channel to take away rainwater
dithiocarbamates dithiocarbamates plural noun fungicides widely used on fruit, vegetables and arable crops
63
dominant
diurnal diurnal adjective 1. referring to the 24-
hour cycle of day and night ć Diurnal
changes in surface temperature over the
sea are small. 2. happening every day 3.
happening in the daytime
diurnal diurnal jet jet noun a current of water in the
ocean created by the heat of the sun during
the daytime
diuron diuron noun a herbicide used as a ground
spray around trees and bushes (NOTE: It is
under review for withdrawal from use in the
European Union.)
divergence divergence noun a difference ć a diver-
gence of opinion on the cloning issue ć a
divergence between the preliminary report
and the final results
divergent divergent adjective different
diversification diversification noun changing to a dif-
ferent way of working
diversify diversify verb 1. to develop in different
ways 2. to start doing several different
things ć Farmers are encouraged to diver-
sify land use by using it for woodlands or
for recreational facilities.
diversity diversity noun the richness of the number
of species
divide divide verb to separate something into
parts, or become separated into parts ć Air
masses are divided into two types accord-
ing to source region and these are known as
polar and tropical air masses.
division division noun 1. a separation into parts 2.
a traditional category in the scientific clas-
sification of plants, now replaced by phy-
lum
DM DM abbr dry matter
DNA DNA noun a nucleic acid chain carrying
genetic information that is a major constit-
uent of chromosomes. Full form deoxyri-
bonucleic acid. ı RNA
DO DO abbr dissolved oxygen
Dobson Dobson unit unit noun a unit used in measur-
ing the total amount of ozone present in a
vertical column of air above the surface of
the Earth (NOTE: In a layer of ozone at at-
mospheric pressure of 1013 hPa and tem-
perature of 298 K which measures 1 mm in
thickness, the ozone present is equivalent
to 100 Dobson units.)
doline doline
,
dolina
noun
a
round
or
oval
de-
pression in the ground, found in limestone
regions
dolomite dolomite noun an alkaline carbonate of
magnesium or calcium rock
dolphin dolphin noun a marine mammal belong-
ing to the family which also includes killer
whales and pilot whales. Family: Delphini-
dae.
DOM DOM abbr 1. digestible organic matter 2. dry organic matter domain domain noun a particular area of activity ć The subject is controversial outside the scientific domain. domestic domestic adjective 1. referring to the home ć domestic waste 2. not foreign ć domestic politics 3. kept as a farm animal or pet domestic domestic animal animal noun 1. an animal such as a dog or cat which lives with human beings as a pet 2. an animal such as a pig or goat which is kept by human beings for food or other uses domesticated domesticated adjective 1. referring to a wild animal which has been trained to live near a house and not be frightened of human beings 2. referring to a species which was formerly wild but has been selectively bred to fill human needs domestication domestication noun the action of domesticating wild animals or plants domestic domestic consumption consumption noun same as
home consumption
domestic domestic green waste green waste noun the waste produced by a household that is from plants or other materials that can be composted domestic domestic hot water hot water noun hot water used for washing in a house. Abbr DHW domestic domestic refuse refuse noun waste material from houses. Also called domestic waste,
household refuse
domestic domestic sewage sewage noun the sewage from houses domestic domestic waste waste noun same as domes-
tic refuse
dominance dominance noun 1. a state where one species in a community is more abundant than others 2. the priority for food and reproductive mates that one animal has over another in a group 3. the characteristic of a gene form (allele) that leads to the trait which it controls being shown in any individual carrying it. Compare recessive-
ness
dominance dominance hierarchy hierarchy noun the system of priority given to specific individuals in terms of access to food and reproductive mates ć In many species a male is at the top of the dominance hierarchy. dominant dominant adjective 1. important or powerful 2. (of an allele) having the characteristic that leads to the trait which it controls being shown in any individual carrying it. Compare recessive 3. (of a species) being more abundant than others in a community í noun a plant or species which has most influence on the composition and distribu-
dominant species
64
tion of other species. ı codominant, sub-
dominant
dominant dominant species species noun species which
has most influence on the composition and
distribution of other species
dormancy dormancy noun an inactive period ć
seed dormancy
dormant dormant adjective 1. not active or devel-
oping ć Some seeds lie dormant in the soil
for many years. 2. referring to a volcano
which is not erupting but is still able to
erupt. Compare extinct
dormitory dormitory suburb suburb, dormitory town
noun a suburb or town from which the res-
idents travel to work somewhere else
dorsal dorsal adjective referring to the back of a
structure such as the body of a leaf. Oppo-
site ventral
dose dose noun the amount of a drug or of ion-
ising radiation received by an organism ć
The patients received more than the permit-
ted dose of radiation.
dosimeter dosimeter
,
dosemeter
noun
an
instru-
ment for measuring the amount of radiation
double double hulled tanker hulled tanker noun an oil tank-
er made with two hulls, one inside the oth-
er, so as to prevent oil from spilling out if
there is an accident
doubling doubling time time noun the time a popula-
tion takes to double in numbers
Douglas Douglas fir fir noun a North American soft-
wood tree widely planted throughout the
world, and producing strong timber. Latin
name: Pseudotsuga menziesii.
down down noun 1. the small soft feathers of a
young bird, or soft feathers below the outer
feathers in some adult birds 2. a grass-cov-
ered chalky hill with low bushes and few
trees í plural noun downs an area of grass-
covered chalky hills with low bushes and
few trees
down down draught draught noun 1. the cool air
which flows downwards as a rainstorm ap-
proaches 2. the air which flows rapidly
down the lee side of a building or mountain
3. the air which blows down a chimney
downland downland noun an area of grassy treeless
hills
downpipe downpipe noun a pipe carrying rainwater
from a roof into a drain or soakaway
downstream downstream adverb, adjective towards
the mouth of a river ć The silt is carried
downstream and deposited in the delta. ć
Pollution is spreading downstream from the
factory. ć Downstream communities have
not yet been affected. Compare upstream
down-the-drain chemical down-the-drain chemical
noun a
household chemical such as a product used
for cleaning that is disposed of through the public drains downwash downwash noun the action which brings smoke from a chimney down to the ground as it is caught in a downward moving current of air drain drain noun 1. an underground pipe which takes waste water from buildings or from farmland 2. an open channel for taking away waste water í verb 1. to remove liquid from somewhere 2. (of liquid) to flow into something ć The stream drains into the main river. drainage drainage noun 1. the removal of liquid from somewhere 2. the removal of liquid waste and sewage from a building drainage drainage area area, drainage basin noun same as catchment 1 drainpipe drainpipe noun a pipe carrying rainwater, sewage or other liquid into a drain or soakaway draught draught animal animal noun an animal used to pull vehicles or carry heavy loads
dredge dredge verb to remove silt and alluvial deposits from a river bed or other water course or channel drift drift noun a slow movement or change drift drift mine mine noun a mine used when the material to be extracted is visible on the side of a hill or mountain and can be dug into directly driftnet driftnet noun a very wide long net for catching fish that a fishing boat allows to drift in the sea drill drill verb to bore a hole or an oil well ć They are hoping to start drilling for oil by the end of the year. drilling drilling noun the process of boring a hole or an oil well drilling drilling rig rig, drilling platform noun a large metal construction containing the drilling and pumping equipment for extracting oil or gas drinkable drinkable adjective referring to water or another liquid that is safe to drink drinking drinking water water noun water for drinking, especially water that is safe to drink drizzle drizzle noun a light persistent rain with drops of less than 0.5mm in diameter drizzly drizzly adjective referring to weather with a lot of drizzle drop drop noun 1. a small amount of liquid that falls ć a drop of water ć a few drops of rain 2. a lowering or reduction ć The passage of a cold front is usually followed by a drop in temperature. ć A sudden drop in oil pressure is usually an indication of serious en-
65
dust veil
gine trouble. 3. a fall of immature fruit í verb to fall or let something fall droplet droplet noun a small drop of liquid ć Experiments show that smaller droplets of
rain can remain supercooled to much lower temperatures than large droplets. droppings droppings plural noun excreta from animals ć The grass was covered with rabbit and sheep droppings. drought drought noun a long period without rain at a time when rain usually falls drought drought stress stress noun a lack of growth caused by drought drowned drowned valley valley noun a valley which has been submerged by the advance of the sea or a lake drumlin drumlin noun a small oval hill formed by the movement of a glacier, with one end steep and the other sloping drupe drupe noun a fruit with a single seed and a fleshy body (NOTE: Stone fruits such as cherries or plums are drupes.) dry dry adjective with very little moisture í verb to remove moisture from something dry deposition dry deposition noun the fall of dry particles from polluted air forming a harmful deposit on surfaces such as buildings or the leaves of trees dryfall dryfall noun the fall of polluting substances as particulates. Compare wetfall drying drying noun removing moisture from something drying drying out out noun a process whereby water is drained away from wetlands dry dry land land noun 1. land contrasted with the sea or other body of water 2. dryland an area that often has no rain for long periods (often plural) í adjective referring to areas where there is little rain dry dry matter matter noun the matter remaining in a biological sample or in animal feed after the water content has been removed. Abbr DM dryness dryness noun a state of not being wet ć the dryness of the atmosphere on very high mountains dry organic dry organic matter matter noun organic matter such as sewage sludge or manure which has been dried out and may be used as a fertiliser. Abbr DOM dry dry season season noun the time of year in some countries when very little rain falls dry-stone dry-stone wall wall noun a wall made of stones carefully placed one on top of the other without using any mortar dry dry up up verb (of a river or lake) to become dry ć The river dries up completely in summer.
duct duct noun a channel or tube through which things such as fluids or cables can pass ć Air-conditioning ducts need regular cleaning. dump dump noun a place where waste, especially solid waste, is thrown away ć The mine is surrounded with dumps of excavated waste. í verb to throw away waste, especially without being subject to environmental controls dumping dumping noun 1. the disposal of waste ć the dumping of nuclear waste into the sea ć illegal dumping 2. the sale of agricultural products at a price below the true cost, to get rid of excess produce cheaply, usually in an overseas market dumping dumping ground ground noun a place where waste is thrown away, especially casually dumpsite dumpsite noun a place on land or at sea where waste is dumped ć Sludge bacteria can survive in seawater for long periods and are widely dispersed from dumpsites. dunes dunes plural noun an area of sand blown by the wind into small hills and ridges which may have plants growing on them ć The village was threatened by encroaching dunes. ć The dunes were colonised by marram grass. dung dung noun solid waste excreta from animals, especially cattle, often used as fertiliser duplication duplication noun a situation where two or more things have the same purpose duramen duramen noun same as heartwood durum durum noun a type of wheat grown in southern Europe and the USA and used in making semolina for processing into pasta. Latin name: Triticum durum. dust dust noun a fine powder made of particles, e.g. dry dirt or sand dustbin dustbin noun a container into which household rubbish is placed to be collected by municipal refuse collectors dustcart dustcart noun a large vehicle that is used for collecting household waste dust dust devil devil noun a rapidly turning column of air which picks up sand over a desert or beach, and things such as dust, leaves and litter elsewhere dust dust discharge discharge noun a release of dust into the atmosphere, especially from an industrial process dust dust storm storm noun a storm of wind which blows dust and sand with it, common in North Africa dust dust veil veil noun a mass of dust in the atmosphere created by volcanic eruptions, storms and burning fossil fuels, which cuts
Dutch elm disease
66
off solar radiation and so reduces the temperature of the Earth’s surface. Compare greenhouse effect Dutch Dutch elm disease elm disease noun a fungal disease that kills elm trees, caused by Ceratocystis ulmi and spread by a bark beetle duty duty of care of care noun a duty which every citizen and organisation has not to act negligently, especially the system for the safe handling of waste, introduced by the UK Environmental Protection Act 1990 dwelling dwelling noun a place where a person lives, e.g. a house, apartment or flat dye dye noun a substance used to change the colour of something ć Minute surface cracks which are difficult to detect by visual means may be highlighted by using penetrant dyes. dyke dyke noun 1. a long wall of earth built to keep water out 2. a ditch for drainage í verb to build walls of earth to help prevent water from flooding land dynamic dynamic coastline coastline noun a coastline that is changing naturally through wind and
wave action and may be increasing or eroding, either rapidly over a longer period dynamic dynamic equilibrium equilibrium noun a situation which is fluctuating around an apparent average state, where that average state is also changing through time dynamometer dynamometer noun a machine that measures the output of an engine dysphotic dysphotic adjective referring to the area of water in a lake or the sea between the aphotic zone at the bottom of the water and the euphotic zone which sunlight can reach dystrophic dystrophic adjective referring to a pond or lake that contains very acidic brown water, lacks oxygen, and is unable to support much plant or animal life because of excessive humus content. ı eutrophic, mesotrophic, oligotrophic
dystrophy dystrophy noun a condition in which pond or lake water is unable to support much plant or animal life because of excessive humus content. The dead vegetation does not decompose but settles at the bottom forming a peat bog.
E
EA EA abbr Environment Agency
ear ear noun 1. an organ which is used for
hearing 2. the flower head of a cereal plant
such as wheat or maize where the grains de-
velop
early successional plant early successional plant
noun a plant
which grows rapidly and produces many
seeds, often not tolerating shade. Such
plants are the first to colonise new areas.
earth earth noun 1. soil 2. the ground or land
surface í verb to connect an electrical de-
vice to the ground ć All appliances must be
earthed. (NOTE: The US term is ground.)
Ear Earth th noun the planet on which human be-
ings developed and live
COMMENT: Earth is the third planet of the
solar system and the only one known to support life. Earth is also remarkable for its seas of liquid water, for its oxygen-containing atmosphere and for being geologically very active. Earth rotates on its axis in a
day, orbits the Sun in a year and has a satellite, the Moon, which orbits it once per lunar month. Earth can be divided into various zones: the lithosphere (solid rock and molten interior), the hydrosphere (the wa-
ter covering the surface), the atmosphere (the gaseous zone rising above Earth’s surface) and the biosphere (those parts of the other zones in which living organisms exist).
earth earth closet closet noun a toilet in which the
excreta are covered with earth instead of
being flushed away with water or treated
with chemicals
earth earth dam dam noun a dam made of piled
earth
earth earth flow flow noun the sliding of wet earth
and rocks down the side of a slope or moun-
tain, often after heavy rainfall or sometimes
caused by excavation
earthquake earthquake noun a phenomenon in
which the Earth’s crust or the mantle be-
neath it shakes and the surface of the
ground moves because of movement inside
the crust along fault lines, often causing
damage to buildings. ı epicentre, Modi-
fied Mercalli scale, Richter scale, seis-
mic
earth earth science science noun any science con-
cerned with the physical aspects of the
planet Earth, e.g. geochemistry, geodesy,
geography, geology, geomorphology, geophysics or meteorology, Earth Earth Summit Summit noun the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992 earthworks earthworks plural noun constructions such as walls or banks made from soil
earthworm earthworm noun an invertebrate animal with a long thin body divided into many segments, living in large numbers in the soil
COMMENT: Earthworms aerate the soil as they tunnel. They also eat organic matter and help increase the soil’s fertility. They help stabilise the soil structure by compressing material and mixing it with organic matter and calcium. It is believed that they also secrete a hormone which encourages rooting by plants.
ebb ebb verb (of the sea or water affected by tides) to move away from a shore, as the tide falls í noun the movement of the sea or water affected by tides away from a shore as the tide falls. Compare flow
ebb ebb tide tide noun a tide which is going down or which is at its lowest ć The plan is to build a barrage to generate electricity on
the ebb tide. Compare flood tide ebony ebony noun a black tropical hardwood tree, now becoming scarce. Genus: Diospyros. ecdysis ecdysis noun the regular shedding of the hard outer layer (cuticle) of arthropods or the skin of reptiles ecesis ecesis noun the successful establishment of a plant or animal species in a new environment echinoderm echinoderm noun a marine invertebrate animal with a radially symmetrical body, tube feet, and an internal skeleton of calcareous plates, e.g. a starfish, sea urchin, sea lily or sea cucumber. Phylum: Echinodermata.
echo echo noun the repetition of a sound by reflection of sound waves from a surface echolocation echolocation noun the technique of finding the location of something by sending out a sound signal and listening to the reflection of the sound (NOTE: Bats and
whales navigate and find their food by using echolocation.)
echosounder
68
echosounder echosounder noun a device used to find the depth of water by sending a sound signal down to the bottom and calculating the distance from the time taken for the reflected sound to reach the surface again
echosounding echosounding noun the process of finding the depth of water using an echosounder
eclipse eclipse noun a situation when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth or when the Earth passes between the Sun and the Moon, in both cases cutting off the light visible from Earth. ı solar eclipse, lunar
eclipse
eco- eco- prefix ecology, ecological ecoagriculture ecoagriculture noun the practice of productive agriculture using methods designed to maintain natural resources, biodiversity and the landscape
eco-audit eco-audit noun same as environmental
audit
ecocatastrophe ecocatastrophe noun an event that results in very severe damage to the environment, especially one caused by human action
ecoclimate ecoclimate noun the climate of a specific habitat, regarded as an ecological factor ecocline ecocline noun the changes which take place in a species as individuals live in different habitats ecocomposite ecocomposite noun a material made from a plant fibre such as hemp fixed in a resin based on a plant extract such as cashew-nut shell liquor eco-efficiency eco-efficiency noun the efficient manufacture of goods at competitive prices without harm to the environment eco-engineering eco-engineering noun the use of trees and traditional materials to protect areas of land likely to suffer erosion or landslips, keeping hard construction to a minimum ecol. ecol. abbr 1. ecological 2. ecology ecolabelling ecolabelling noun the identification and labelling of products and services that are considered less harmful to the environment than other similar products or services E.E. coli coli abbr Escherichia coli ecological ecological adjective referring to ecology ecological ecological balance balance noun the theoretical concept of stability occurring when relative numbers of different organisms living in the same ecosystem remain more or less constant, although in practice there is always fluctuation
ecological ecological corridor corridor noun a strip of vegetation allowing the movement of wildlife or other organisms between two areas
ecological ecological damage damage noun the harm done to an ecosystem ecological ecological disaster disaster noun an event which seriously disturbs the balance of the environment ecological ecological diversity diversity noun a variety of biological communities that interact with one another and with their physical and chemical environments ecological ecological efficiency efficiency noun a measurement of how much energy is used at different stages in the food chain or at different trophic levels ecological ecological engineering engineering noun a design process that aims to integrate human activities with the natural environment for the benefit of both, taking ecological impact into account in the construction of roads or harbours, the introduction of new plants or animals, or other actions ecological ecological factor factor noun a factor which influences the growth and distribution of a plant species in a habitat ecological ecological fitness fitness noun the number of offspring that survive to maturity and themselves reproduce ecological ecological footprint footprint noun an area of the Earth that supplies the ecosystem resources for an organism to exist ć Ecological footprints enable people to visualise the impact of their consumption patterns and activities on ecosystems. ć You can alter the size of your ecological footprint by modifying your actions. ecological ecological indicator indicator noun a species that has particular nutritional or climatic requirements and whose presence in an area indicates that those requirements are satisfied ecological ecological justification justification noun the reasoning for nature conservation based on the idea that the environment provides specific functions necessary for human life ecologically ecologically adverb in an ecological way ecologically sustainable develop- ecologically sustainable development ment noun development which limits the size of the human population and the use of resources, so as to protect the existing natural resources for future generations ecological ecological niche niche noun the chemical, physical or biological characters that determine the position of an organism or species in an ecosystem (NOTE: This is also referred
to as the ‘role’ or ‘profession’ of an organ-
ism, which may be described in terms of its environment and type, e.g. as an aquatic predator or a terrestrial herbivore.)
69
edaphic climax
ecological ecological pyramid pyramid noun same as biot-
ic pyramid
ecological ecological recovery recovery noun the return of
an ecosystem to its former favourable con-
dition
ecological ecological restoration restoration noun the proc-
ess of renewing and maintaining the health
of an ecosystem
ecological ecological structure structure noun the spatial
and other arrangements of species in an ec-
osystem
ecological ecological succession succession noun the se-
ries of stages by which a group of organ-
isms living in a community reaches its final
stable state or climax
ecologist ecologist noun 1. a scientist who studies
ecology 2. a person who is in favour of
maintaining a balance between living
things and the environment in which they
live in order to improve the life of all organ-
isms
ecology ecology noun the study of the relation-
ships among organisms as well as the rela-
tionships between them and their physical
environment
Eco-Management Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
and
Audit
Scheme noun full form of EMAS
ecomovement ecomovement noun a grouping of peo-
ple and organisations dedicated to the pro-
tection of the environment
economic conservation economic conservation
noun the
management of the natural environment to
maintain a regular yield of natural resourc-
es
economic development economic development
noun the
process of change from an economy based
on agriculture to one based on industry
economic economic injury level injury level noun the level
of an activity such as pest control at which
it is not longer profitable to continue. Abbr
EIL
ecoparasite ecoparasite noun a parasite which is
adapted to a specific host. Compare ec-
toparasite, endoparasite
ecophysiology ecophysiology noun the study of organ-
isms and their functions and how they exist
in their environment
ecosphere ecosphere noun the part of the Earth and
its atmosphere where living organisms ex-
ist, including parts of the lithosphere, the
hydrosphere and the atmosphere. Also
called biosphere
ecosystem ecosystem noun a complex of plant, an-
imal and microorganism communities and
their interactions with the environment in
which they live ć European wetlands are
classic examples of ecosystems that have
been shaped by humans.
ecosystem ecosystem approach approach noun a set of internationally agreed principles guiding the way in which the natural environment and wildlife should be managed
ecosystem ecosystem diversity diversity noun the variety of habitats that exist in the biosphere
ecosystem ecosystem services services plural noun services provided naturally by the ecosystem, which help humans to exist, e.g. reduction in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, stabilising the climate and maintenance of the ozone layer
ecotax ecotax noun a tax that is used to encourage people to change from an activity that damages the environment or to encourage activities with beneficial environmental effects. Also called environmental tax
ecotone ecotone noun an area between two different types of vegetation which may share the characteristics of both, e.g. the border between forest and moorland
ecotourism ecotourism noun a form of tourism that increases people’s understanding of natural areas, without adversely affecting the environment, and gives local people financial benefits from conserving natural resources
ecotoxic ecotoxic adjective likely to cause severe damage to organisms and their environment
ecotoxicity ecotoxicity noun the degree to which a chemical released into an environment by human activities affects the organisms that live or grow there
ecotoxicology ecotoxicology noun the study of how chemicals associated with human activities affect organisms and their environment
ecotype ecotype noun a form within a species that has special characteristics which allow it to live in a specific habitat
ecowarrior ecowarrior noun an activist who is prepared to take direct, sometimes illegal, action on environmental issues rather than just campaign
ecto- ecto- prefix outside. Compare endo-
ectoparasite ectoparasite noun a parasite which lives on the skin or outer surface of its host but feeds by piercing the skin. Compare en-
doparasite
ectotherm ectotherm noun an organism which is largely reliant on external sources of heat to raise its body temperature ć Plants and reptiles are ectotherms. Compare endotherm. Also called poikilotherm
edaphic edaphic adjective referring to soil
edaphic edaphic climax climax noun a climax community caused by the type of soil in an area
edaphic factors
70
edaphic edaphic factors factors plural noun the soil conditions that affect the organisms living in a specific area edaphon edaphon noun an organism living in soil eddy eddy noun a whirlpool of air or of water in a current
Eden Eden Project Project noun a development by a conservation charity in a large disused clay pit in Cornwall that explores human dependence on plants in a global context, illustrating economic, social and environmental impacts. Plants from tropical and other climates are housed in extremely large, domed glasshouses. edgeland edgeland noun land at the edge of a field or wood, or on the edge of an urban area (often plural) ć The edgelands around big cities often have blossoming wildlife. edible edible adjective referring to something that can be eaten EEA EEA abbr European Environment Agency EER EER abbr energy efficiency ratio EFA EFA abbr essential fatty acid effect effect noun something which happens as the result of an action ć Pressure patterns have an effect on weather. Compare affect effective effective adjective having an expected and satisfactory result ć effective control measures effective effective height height noun the height above the ground when a column of smoke from a factory chimney becomes horizontal effectiveness effectiveness noun an assessment of how effective an action is ć Ice covering reduces the effectiveness of an aerial.
efficiency efficiency noun the ability to act or produce something with a minimum of waste, expense or unnecessary effort
efficient efficient adjective referring to the ability to act or produce something with a minimum of waste, expense or unnecessary effort ć Composting is an efficient method of recycling organic matter. effluent effluent noun liquid, semisolid or gas waste from industrial processes or material such as slurry or silage effluent from a farm effluent effluent standard standard noun the amount of sewage allowed to be discharged into a river or the sea egg egg noun 1. a reproductive cell produced in a female mammal by the ovary which, if fertilised by male sperm, becomes an embryo 2. a fertilised ovum of an animal such as a bird, fish, reptile, amphibian or insect, protected by a membrane layer in which the embryo continues developing outside the mother’s body until it hatches
EHO EHO abbr Environmental Health Officer
EIA EIA abbr environmental impact assess-
ment
EIL EIL abbr economic injury level
EINECS EINECS abbr European Inventory of Ex-
isting Commercial Chemical Substances
EIS EIS abbr environmental impact statement
ejecta ejecta plural noun the ash and lava thrown
up by an erupting volcano
electric electric adjective worked by, charged
with or producing electricity
electrical electrical adjective referring to electrici-
ty ć an electrical fault
electrical conductivity electrical conductivity
noun a meas-
urement of salt concentration in soils
electric electric car car noun a car that is propelled
by an electric battery so that it produces no
harmful emissions
electric electric generator generator noun a device which
produces electricity
electricity electricity noun an electric current used
to provide light, heat or power
electricity electricity grid grid noun a system for carry-
ing electricity round a country, using power
lines from power stations. Also called na-
tional grid (NOTE: The electricity is at a
high voltage, which is reduced by trans-
formers to low voltage by the time the elec-
tricity is brought into use.)
electric electric meter meter, electricity meter noun a
device which records how much electricity
has been used
electric electric storm storm noun a storm with thun-
der and lightning
electrodialysis electrodialysis noun the process by
which ions dissolved in sea water are re-
moved, making the water fit to drink
electrolysis electrolysis noun a chemical reaction
caused by the passage of electricity from
one electrode to another
electrolyte electrolyte noun a chemical solution of a
substance which can conduct electricity
electromagnet electromagnet noun a magnet made
from a coil of wire through which an elec-
tric current is passed
electromagnetic electromagnetic adjective 1. having
magnetic properties caused by a flow of
electricity 2. containing or worked by an
electromagnet
electromotive electromotive force force noun a source of
electrical energy, from the movement of
electrons, required to produce an electric
current, produced by devices such as batter-
ies or generators and measured in volts.
Abbr emf
electron electron noun a negatively charged suba-
tomic particle within an atom
71
emission
electronegative electronegative adjective (of atoms)
having negative electric charge and there-
fore tending to move towards a positive
electric pole
electronic electronic adjective referring to, based
on, operated by or involving the controlled
conduction of electrons, especially in a
vacuum, gas or semi-conducting material
electron electron microscope microscope noun a micro-
scope that uses a beam of electrons instead
of light. Abbr EM
electrostatic electrostatic adjective referring to de-
vices using the properties of static electri-
cal charge
electrostatic precipitator electrostatic precipitator
noun a de-
vice for collecting minute particles of dust
suspended in gas by charging the particles
as they pass through an electrostatic field
element element noun a chemical substance that
cannot be broken down to a simpler sub-
stance (NOTE: There are 110 named ele-
ments.)
elemental elemental adjective in the form of a pure
element
elementary elementary particle particle noun a particle
that is smaller than an atom or forms part of
an atom, e.g. an electron. Also called fun-
damental particle, subatomic particle
elements elements plural noun the weather ć pro-
tected from the elements
elephant elephant grass grass noun same as miscant-
hus
elevated elevated adjective 1. raised to a higher
place or position 2. increased ć elevated
concentrations of particles in the air
eliminate eliminate verb 1. to get rid of or remove
something that is not wanted ć Mosquitoes
were eliminated by spraying breeding
grounds with oil. 2. to rule out a possibility
ć Bacteria were eliminated as a possible
cause of the illness.
elimination elimination noun 1. the removal of a
problem 2. the removal of waste matter
from the body 3. the process of ruling out a
possibility ć the elimination of possible
sources of contamination ˽ by a process of
elimination by removing possibilities one
by one until only the most likely cause or
answer is left
ELINCS ELINCS abbr European List of Notified
Chemical Substances
elm elm noun a large hardwood tree that grows
in temperate areas. Genus: Ulmus. ı Dutch
elm disease
ElEl Niño Niño noun a phenomenon occurring
every few years in the Pacific Ocean, where
a mass of warm water moves from west to
east, rising as it moves, giving very high tides along the Pacific coast of South America and affecting the climate
eluviation eluviation noun the action of particles and chemicals leaching from the topsoil down into the subsoil
eluvium eluvium noun gravel formed as rocks are broken down into fragments where they are lying. Compare alluvium
ELV ELV abbr end-of-life vehicle
EM EM abbr electron microscope
EMAS EMAS noun a voluntary scheme of the European Union in which commercial and other organisations are encouraged to assess their approach to environmental matters against a given set of criteria. Full form
Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
embankment embankment noun a wall made along a river bank to prevent a river from overflowing
embryo embryo noun an organism that develops from a fertilised egg or seed, e.g. an animal in the first weeks of gestation or a seedling plant with cotyledons and a root (NOTE: Af-
ter eight weeks an unborn baby is called a fetus.)
embryonic embryonic adjective 1. referring to an embryo 2. in the first stages of development
emergence emergence noun 1. a gradual upward movement of a land mass 2. the germination of a seed
emergency emergency noun a dangerous situation in which immediate action needs to be taken ć You should know the safety procedures to be taken in case of emergency. ć After the earthquake, an emergency was declared.
emergent emergent adjective 1. referring to a plant that is just starting to grow 2. referring to a country that is starting to become developed industrially
emerging emerging disease disease noun a new disease which is beginning to appear and affect human beings or wildlife
emf emf abbr electromotive force
emigration emigration noun the movement of an individual out of an area. Opposite immigra-
tion
emission emission noun 1. the sending out of matter, energy or signals ć light emissions ć One factor on which the operational range of a radio emission depends is the transmitted power. 2. a substance discharged into the air by an internal combustion engine or other device ć Exhaust emissions contain pollutants. ć Gas emissions can cause acid rain.
emission charge
72
emission emission charge charge noun a fee paid by a company to be allowed to discharge waste into the environment emission emission credit credit noun the amount by which an industrialised country can buy emission reductions in a less developed country, under the Kyoto agreement of 1997. ı Kyoto Protocol emission emission factor factor noun the ratio between the pollution produced and the amount of fuel burnt emission emission rate rate noun the amount of pollutant produced over a specific period emission emission standard standard noun the amount of an effluent or pollutant that can legally be released into the environment, e.g. the amount of sewage which can be discharged into a river or the sea, or the amount of carbon monoxide that can legally be released into the atmosphere by petrol and diesel engines emissions emissions trading trading noun the system of one country using some of another country’s permitted emission amount as well as its own, as a result of the rule that any new source of pollution must be offset by the reduction of pollution from existing sources emission emission tax tax noun a tax levied on air or water emissions emit emit verb to send out matter, energy or a signal ć radiation emitted by the sun ć An X-ray tube emits radiation. (NOTE: emitting
– emitted)
emulsifier emulsifier noun a substance added to mixtures of food such as water and oil to hold them together. ı stabiliser. Also called emulsifying agent (NOTE: Emulsifi-
ers are used in sauces and added to meat
to increase the water content so that the meat is heavier. In the European Union, emulsifiers and stabilisers have E numbers
E322 to E495.)
emulsify emulsify verb to mix two liquids so thoroughly that they will not separate emulsifying emulsifying agent agent noun same as emul-
sifier
EN EN abbr 1. endangered species 2. English Nature encapsulation encapsulation noun the enclosure of something inside something else, especially for protection enclosure enclosure noun an area surrounded by a fence, often to contain animals. Compare
exclosure
encroach encroach on on verb to come close to and gradually cover something ć The town is spreading beyond the by-pass, encroaching on farming land. ć Trees are spreading
down the mountain and encroaching on the lower more fertile land in the valleys.
endanger endanger verb to put something in danger ć Pollution from the factory is endangering the aquatic life in the lakes.
endangered endangered species species noun a species that is facing a risk of extinction in the wild, usually taken to be when fewer than 250 mature individuals exist. Abbr EN (NOTE:
The plural is endangered species.)
endemic endemic adjective 1. referring to an organism that exists or originated from a specific area ć The isolation of the islands has led to the evolution of endemic forms. ć The northern part of the island is inhabited by many endemic mammals and birds. 2. referring to a disease that occurs within a specific area ć This disease is endemic to Mediterranean countries. ı epidemic,
pandemic
endemic endemic population population noun a group of organisms existing in a specific geographic area
endemic endemic species species noun a species that is native to a specific geographic area
endo- endo- prefix inside or within. Compare
ecto-
endocarp endocarp noun the innermost of the layers of the wall (pericarp) of a fruit (NOTE:
Sometimes it is toughened or hardened, as in a cherry stone or peach stone.)
endocrine endocrine disrupter disrupter, endocrine inhibitor noun a substance that damages the activity of the endocrine system, sometimes causing reproductive or developmental problems, sometimes because it has a similar action to a natural hormone
end-of-life end-of-life directive directive noun a set of regulations about the disposal of something such as a vehicle or appliance at the end of its useful service
end-of-life end-of-life vehicle vehicle noun a vehicle that has reached the end of its useful service and is subject to regulations for its disposal in order to avoid pollution
endoparasite endoparasite noun a parasite that lives inside its host. Compare ectoparasite
endosperm endosperm noun a storage tissue in plant seeds that provides nourishment for the developing embryo
endotherm endotherm noun an organism that is able to generate heat internally in order to raise its body temperature ć Birds and mammals are endotherms. Compare ectotherm. Also called homoiotherm
endothermic endothermic reaction reaction noun a chemical reaction in which heat is removed from
73
entero-
the surroundings. Compare exothermic re-
action
endotoxin endotoxin noun a poison from bacteria
which passes into the body when contami-
nated food is eaten
enemy-free enemy-free space space noun an area into
which a prey can escape from a predator,
especially where two species of prey live in
the same environment
energise energise verb to supply energy such as
electricity to a machine or system to make
it work
energostasis energostasis noun energy balance
energy energy noun 1. the force or strength to
carry out activities ć You need to eat carbo-
hydrates to give you energy. 2. electricity or
other fuel ć We have to review our energy
requirements regularly.
energy energy balance balance noun a series of meas-
urements showing the movement of energy
between organisms and their environment
energy energy budget budget noun the level of energy
at different points in an ecosystem or an in-
dustrial process
energy energy conservation conservation noun the avoid-
ance of wasting energy
COMMENT: Energy conservation is widely
practised to reduce excessive and costly
consumption of energy. Reduction of heat-
ing levels in houses and offices, insulating
buildings against loss of heat, using solar
power instead of fossil fuels and increas-
ing the efficiency of car engines are all ex-
amples of energy conservation.
energy conservation law energy conservation law
noun a law
which makes it illegal to waste energy
energy energy content content noun the amount of en-
ergy available in a specific amount of fuel
energy energy crop crop noun a crop which is grown
to be used to provide energy, e.g. a fast-
growing tree
energy efficiency ratio energy efficiency ratio
noun a meas-
ure of the efficiency of a heating or cooling
system such as a heat pump or an air-condi-
tioning system, shown as the ratio of the
output in Btu per hour to the input in watts.
Abbr EER
energy-efficient energy-efficient adjective referring to
the careful use of energy with minimum
waste ć energy-efficient manufacturing
processes
energy energy flow flow noun the flow of energy
from one trophic level to another in a food
chain
energy energy gain gain noun an increase in the
amount of energy or heat. Also called heat
gain
energy energy recovery recovery noun the production
of energy from synthetic materials, e.g. us-
ing the heat from incineration of solid
waste to generate electricity
energy energy tax tax noun a tax on an energy
source intended to discourage the use of en-
vironmentally damaging sources and en-
courage energy conservation or use of al-
ternative sources
energy energy value value noun the heat value of a
substance measured in joules. Also called
calorific value
engineer engineer noun a person who works in en-
gineering í verb to design and make some-
thing
engineering engineering noun the application of the
principles of science to the design, con-
struction and use of machines or buildings
English English Nature Nature noun the UK govern-
ment agency that is responsible for nature
conservation in England. Abbr EN (NOTE: It
was formerly part of the Nature Conservan-
cy Council and is about to undergo another
reorganisation.)
enhanced greenhouse effect enhanced greenhouse effect
noun
the warming influence on the climate pro-
duced as human emissions of greenhouse
gases increase the natural greenhouse ef-
fect
enhancer enhancer noun an artificial substance
that increases the flavour of food or of arti-
ficial flavouring that has been added to
food (NOTE: In the European Union, flavour
enhancers added to food have the E num-
bers E620 to E637.)
enquire enquire
,
inquire
verb
to
ask
questions
about something
enquiry enquiry
,
inquiry
noun
1.
a
question,
or
the process of asking a question. ı public
enquiry (NOTE: The plural is enquiries.) 2.
a request for data or information from a de-
vice or database
enrich enrich verb 1. to make something richer
or stronger, e.g. adding humus to enrich the
soil 2. to improve the nutritional quality of
food ć enrich with vitamins 3. to increase
the amount of uranium-235 in the fuel of a
nuclear reactor ć Fuel is enriched to 15%
with fissile material.
enrichment enrichment noun the increase in nitro-
gen, phosphorous and carbon compounds
or other nutrients in water, especially as a
result of a sewage flow or agricultural run-
off, which encourages the growth of algae
and other water plants
ensilage ensilage
,
ensiling
noun
the
process
of
making silage for cattle by cutting grass
and other green plants and storing it in silos
enteric enteric adjective referring to the intestine
entero- entero- prefix referring to the intestine
Enterobacteria
74
Enterobacteria Enterobacteria plural noun a family of
bacteria, including Salmonella and Es-
cherichia
entire entire adjective referring to leaves that are
not divided into parts
entity entity noun something which is distinct
and separate from something else ć The in-
stitutes are closely connected but are sepa-
rate legal entities.
entomological entomological adjective referring to in-
sects
entomologist entomologist noun a scientist who spe-
cialises in the study of insects
entomology entomology noun the study of insects
entrap entrap verb 1. to catch an animal by
means of a trap 2. to catch and retain some-
thing ć Moisture is entrapped in the layers.
ć Up to 90% of sulfur emissions can be en-
trapped.
entropy entropy noun a measure of the degree of
disorder in a closed system
entry entry point point noun a place where people
can enter or by which something can be ac-
cessed
environment environment noun the surroundings of
any organism, including the physical world
and other organisms. ı built environment,
natural environment
COMMENT: The environment is anything outside an organism in which the organism lives. It can be a geographical region, a climatic condition, a pollutant or the noises which surround an organism. The human
environment includes the country or region or town or house or room in which a person lives. A parasite’s environment includes the body of the host. A plant’s environment includes the type of soil at a spe-
cific altitude.
Environment Environment Act Act noun a piece of UK
legislation passed in 1995 that created the
Environment Agency and set out measures
for dealing with contaminated land
Environment Environment Agency Agency noun in England
and Wales, the government agency respon-
sible for protection of the environment, in-
cluding flood and sea defences. Abbr EA
environmental environmental adjective referring to the
environment
environmental accounting environmental accounting
noun
same as full-cost accounting
environmental assessment environmental assessment
noun the
identification of the expected environmen-
tal effects of a proposed action
environmental environmental audit audit noun an assess-
ment made by a company or organisation of
the financial benefits and disadvantages of
adopting an environmentally sound policy.
Also called eco-audit
‘Environmental audits can alert an organisation
to areas in which it does not meet current or pro-
posed legislative requirements. Such audits can
also encourage more efficient techniques and
waste reduction measures.’ [Environmental
Conservation]
environmental environmental biology biology noun the study
of living organisms in relationship to their
environment
environmental conditionality environmental conditionality
noun
same as cross-compliance
environmental control environmental control
noun the
means of maintaining an environment
environmental damage environmental damage
noun harm
done to the environment, e.g. pollution of
rivers
environmental degradation environmental degradation
noun a
reduction in the quality of the environment
environmental directive environmental directive
noun an EU
policy statement on the appropriate ways of
dealing with a specific environmental issue
environmental disorder environmental disorder
noun a dis-
ruption of the usual condition of an envi-
ronment
environmental environmental equity equity noun the princi-
ple that no section of the population re-
ceives a greater effect of environmental
pollution or disruption than any other. Also
called environmental justice
environmental environmental ethics ethics noun the exami-
nation and discussion of people’s obliga-
tions towards the environment
environmental fluctuation environmental fluctuation
noun a
long- or short-term change in the environ-
ment, which may have a large effect on the
populations living there
environmental forecasting environmental forecasting
noun the
prediction of the effects on the surrounding
environment of new construction pro-
grammes
environmental environmental health health noun the local
government functions concerned with min-
imising risks to public health and the local
environment, including water and air qual-
ity, hygiene in restaurants and shops, and
pest control
Environmental Health Officer Environmental Health Officer
noun
an official of a local authority who exam-
ines the environment and tests for hazards
such as bad sanitation or noise pollution.
Abbr EHO
environmental hygiene environmental hygiene
noun the
measures undertaken to keep the human en-
vironment safe and healthy to live in, in-
cluding waste disposal, clean water sup-
plies, food safety controls and good hous-
ing
environmental environmental impact impact noun the effect
upon the environment of actions or events
75
environment protection
such as large construction programmes or
the draining of marshes
environmental impact assessment environmental impact assessment
noun an evaluation of the effect upon the
environment of an action such as a large
construction programme. Abbr EIA
environmental impact statement environmental impact statement
noun a statement required under US law for
any major federal project, evaluating the ef-
fect of the project on the environment.
Abbr EIS
environmental indicator environmental indicator
noun an or-
ganism that increases or decreases in spe-
cific environmental conditions and whose
presence indicates the state of an environ-
ment or a change in an environment, e.g. a
lichen sensitive to industrial pollution be-
coming rare in a polluted area, or a species
of fish returning to a formerly polluted river
environmentalism environmentalism noun concern for
the protection of the environment
environmentalist environmentalist noun a person who is
concerned with protecting the environment
environmentalist group environmentalist group
noun an as-
sociation or society concerned with the
protection of the environment and increas-
ing awareness of environmental issues
environmentalist lobby environmentalist lobby
noun a group
of people who try to persuade politicians
that the environment must be protected and
that pollution must be controlled
environmental environmental justice justice noun same as
environmental equity
environmental labelling environmental labelling
noun same as
ecolabelling
environmentally environmentally adverb with regard to
the natural world and its vulnerability to
damage
environmentally friendly environmentally friendly
adjective in-
tended to minimise harm to the environ-
ment, e.g. by using biodegradable ingredi-
ents. Also called environment-friendly
Environmentally Sensitive Area Environmentally Sensitive Area
noun in the UK, a rural area designated by
Defra as needing special protection from
modern farming practices. Abbr ESA
‘The Defra-funded Countryside Stewardship and
Environmentally Sensitive Areas schemes help
to maintain and enhance the biodiversity and
landscape value of farmed land, protect historic
features and promote public access. (Delivering
the evidence. Defra’s Science and Innovation
Strategy, 2003–06)’
environmental environmental policy policy noun a plan for
dealing with all matters affecting the envi-
ronment on a national or local scale
environmental pollution environmental pollution
noun the
pollution of the environment by human ac-
tivities
environmental protection environmental protection
noun the
activity of protecting the environment by
regulating the discharge of waste, the emis-
sion of pollutants and other human activi-
ties. Also called environment protection
Environmental Environmental Protection Act 1990
Protection
Act
1990 noun a UK regulation to allow the in-
troduction of integrated pollution control,
regulations for the disposal of waste and
other provisions. Abbr EPA
Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency
noun US an administrative body in the
USA which deals with pollution. Abbr EPA
environmental protection associa- environmental protection association
tion noun an organisation concerned with
protecting the environment from damage
and pollution
environmental quality standard environmental quality standard
noun a limit for the concentration of an ef-
fluent or pollutant which is accepted in a
specific environment, e.g. the concentra-
tion of trace elements in drinking water or
of additives in food
environmental radioactivity environmental radioactivity
noun
the energy in the form of radiation that is
emitted into the environment by radioactive
substances
environmental resistance environmental resistance
noun the
ability to withstand pressures such as com-
petition, weather conditions or food availa-
bility, which restrict the potential growth of
a population
environmental science environmental science
noun the
study of the relationship between humans
and the environment, the problems caused
by pollution or loss of habitats, and pro-
posed solutions
environmental set-aside environmental set-aside
noun a
scheme of suspending cultivation of food
crops for a period with clearly defined en-
vironmental aims and designed appropri-
ately for local conditions
environmental environmental studies studies noun a course
of study that includes a range of disciplines
focusing on the natural environment
environmental environmental tax tax noun same as eco-
tax
environmental variation environmental variation
noun the
continual changes in the environment over
a period
Environment Environment Council Council noun the forum
of environment ministers of member coun-
tries of the European Union that agrees leg-
islation on environmental matters
environment-friendly environment-friendly adjective same
as environmentally friendly
environment protection environment protection
noun same as
environmental protection
Envirowise
76
Envirowise Envirowise noun a government programme providing advice to businesses in industry and commerce on improving efficiency in the use of resources and reducing waste enzymatic enzymatic adjective referring to enzymes enzyme enzyme noun a protein substance produced by living cells which promotes a biochemical reaction in living organisms
(NOTE: The names of enzymes mostly end with the suffix -ase.)
eolian eolian adjective caused by wind ć eolian deposits EPA EPA abbr 1. Environmental Protection Act 1990 2. Environmental Protection Agency ephemeral ephemeral noun a plant or insect that has a short life cycle and may complete several life cycles within a year ć Many weeds are ephemerals. epibiont epibiont noun an organism that lives on the surface of another without being a parasite epibiosis epibiosis noun a state where an organism lives on the surface of another, but is not a parasite epicentre epicentre noun a point on the surface of the Earth above the focus of an earthquake or in the centre of a nuclear explosion. Also called focus epidemic epidemic noun a rapidly spreading infection or disease. ı endemic, pandemic epidemiological epidemiological adjective referring to epidemiology epidemiologist epidemiologist noun a person who studies the factors involved in the incidence, distribution and control of disease in a population epidemiology epidemiology noun the study of diseases in a population, how they spread and how they can be controlled epidermis epidermis noun an outer layer of cells of a plant or animal epigeal epigeal adjective occurring or developing above ground ć epigeal germination Compare hypogeal epigenous epigenous adjective developing or growing on a surface epilimnion epilimnion noun the top layer of water in a lake, which contains more oxygen and is warmer than the water below. ı hypolimni-
on, metalimnion
epilithic epilithic adjective growing on or attached to the surface of rocks or stones epiphyte epiphyte noun a plant that lives on another plant for physical support, but is not a parasite of it (NOTE: Many orchids are epi-
phytes.)
epiphytic epiphytic adjective attached to another plant for support, but not parasitic episode episode noun an event, or a group of related events episodic episodic adjective happening sometimes but not regularly epithelial epithelial adjective referring to the epithelium epixylous epixylous adjective growing on wood epizoite epizoite noun an animal that lives on the surface of another, without being a parasite epoch epoch noun ‘ geological epoch equator equator noun an imaginary circle around the Earth’s surface, equidistant from the poles and perpendicular to the axis of rotation, which divides the Earth into the northern and southern hemispheres ć Every point on the equator is equidistant from the poles. equatorial equatorial adjective referring to the equator equilibrium equilibrium noun a state of balance equine equine adjective relating to horses equinox equinox noun either of the two occasions in the year, spring and autumn, when the sun crosses the celestial equator and night and day are each 12 hours long equip equip verb to provide a person, organisation or place with machinery or equipment ć The laboratory has been recently equipped with new microscopes. equipment equipment noun the devices, systems or machines that are needed for a particular purpose ć drilling equipment (NOTE: no
plural: for one item say a piece of equipment.)
equivalent equivalent adjective being the same, or effectively the same ć A metal part could be as much as 25 times heavier than an equivalent plastic part. ć The electricity it uses is equivalent to the amount needed to power a small radio. era era noun ‘ geological era eradicate eradicate verb to remove something completely ć action to eradicate an infestation of woodworm eradication eradication noun 1. the complete removal of something 2. the total extinction of a species ergot ergot noun a fungus that grows on cereals, especially rye, producing a mycotoxin which causes hallucinations and sometimes death if eaten. Genus: Claviceps. ergotamine ergotamine noun the toxin that causes ergotism ergotism ergotism noun poisoning by eating cereals or bread contaminated by ergot
77
ethno-
ericaceous ericaceous adjective belonging to the group of plants such as heather and azalea that grow on acid soils erode erode verb to wear away gradually, or to wear something away ć The hills have been eroded by wind and rain. erosion erosion noun the wearing away of soil or rock by rain, wind, sea or rivers or by the action of toxic substances ć Grass cover
provides some protection against soil erosion.
COMMENT: Accelerated erosion is caused by human activity in addition to the natural rate of erosion. Cleared land in droughtstricken areas can produce dry soil which may blow away. Felling trees removes the roots which bind the soil particles together and so exposes the soil to erosion by rainwater. Ploughing up and down slopes as opposed to contour ploughing, can lead to the formation of rills and serious soil erosion.
erupt erupt verb (of a volcano) to become active and produce lava, smoke and hot ash eruption eruption noun a sudden violent ejection of lava, smoke and ash by a volcano ć Several villages were destroyed in the recent volcanic eruption.
eruptive eruptive adjective 1. referring to a volcano that produces lava, smoke and hot ash 2. referring to rock formed by the solidification of magma ESA ESA abbr Environmentally Sensitive Area escape escape noun 1. the action of allowing toxic substances to leave a container ć The
area around the reprocessing plant was evacuated because of an escape of radioac-
tive coolant. 2. a cultivated plant that now reproduces in the wild. Compare feral 3. a domesticated animal that has become wild. Compare feral í verb 1. to move out of a container ć Steam was escaping from holes in the pipes. 2. to move from a domestic or cultivated area and live or grow wild 3. to get out of captivity ć The monkey had escaped from a wildlife park. escarpment escarpment noun a steep slope at the edge of a plateau Escherichia coli noun a Gram-negative bacterium commonly found in faeces and associated with acute gastroenteritis if it enters the digestive system esker esker noun a long winding ridge formed of gravel essence essence noun a concentrated oil extracted from a plant, used in food, cosmetics, analgesics and antiseptics ć vanilla essence essential essential adjective extremely important or necessary
essential essential fatty acid fatty acid noun an unsaturated fatty acid essential for growth but which cannot be synthesised by the body and has to be obtained from the food supply. Abbr
EFA (NOTE: The two essential fatty acids are linoleic acid and linolenic acid.)
essential essential oil oil noun an oil from a plant, used in cosmetics, analgesics or antiseptics, e.g. peppermint oil. Also called volatile oil
establish establish verb 1. to work out or calculate something ˽ to establish a position to find out where something is 2. to start or set up something ć We established routine procedures very quickly. ˽ to establish communication to make contact ˽ to establish control to get control 3. to settle or grow permanently ć The starling has become established in all parts of the USA. ć Even established trees have been attacked by the disease.
estate estate noun 1. a rural property consisting of a large area of land and a big house 2. same as plantation ć a tea estate 3. an area specially designed and constructed for residential or industrial use ć a housing estate
estimate estimate noun an approximate calculation of size, weight or extent í verb to make an approximate calculation of size, weight or extent
estivation estivation noun US spelling of aestiva-
tion
estrogen estrogen noun US spelling of oestrogen
estuarine estuarine adjective referring to estuaries
estuarine estuarine plant plant noun a plant which lives in an estuary, where the water is alternately fresh and salty as the tide comes in and goes out
estuary estuary noun a part of a river where it meets the sea and is partly composed of salt water
ethanol ethanol noun a colourless inflammable liquid, produced by the fermentation of sugars. It is used as an ingredient of organic chemicals, intoxicating drinks and medicines. Formula: C2H5OH. Also called ethyl
alcohol
ethene ethene noun same as ethylene ethical ethical adjective concerning accepted standards of behaviour and practice
ethics ethics noun 1. a set of moral standards by which people behave 2. a code of practice which shows how a group of professionals should interact with each other
Ethiopian Ethiopian Region Region noun a biogeographical region, part of Arctogea, comprising Africa south of the Sahara ethno- ethno- prefix human
ethnobotany
78
ethnobotany ethnobotany noun the study of the way
plants are used by humans
ethnopharmacology ethnopharmacology noun the study of
the medicines used by people in traditional
communities
ethology ethology noun the study of the behaviour
of living organisms
ethyl ethyl alcohol alcohol noun same as ethanol
ethylene ethylene noun a hydrocarbon occurring
in natural gas and ripening fruits. It is used
in the production of polythene and as an an-
aesthetic. Also called ethene
etiolation etiolation noun the process by which a
green plant grown in insufficient light be-
comes yellow and grows long shoots
etiology etiology noun another spelling of aetiol-
ogy
-etum -etum suffix area containing a particular
type of plant ć arboretum ć pinetum
EU EU abbr European Union
eucalypt eucalypt
,
eucalyptus
noun
a
quick-
growing Australian hardwood tree with
strong-smelling resin. Genus: Eucalyptus.
Euglenophyta Euglenophyta noun a division of uni-
cellular algae
eukaryote eukaryote
,
eucaryote
noun
an
organism
that has a cell or cells with nuclei and or-
ganelles. Compare prokaryote
eukaryotic eukaryotic
,
eucaryotic
adjective
refer-
ring to eukaryotes. Compare prokaryotic
EUNIS EUNIS noun a database of publicly avail-
able data on species, habitat types and des-
ignated sites in Europe, maintained by the
European Union Nature Information Sys-
tem
euphotic euphotic adjective relating to the upper
layer of a body of water that allows the pen-
etration of enough light to support plants
which photosynthesise
euphotic euphotic zone zone noun the top layer of wa-
ter in the sea or a lake, which sunlight can
penetrate and in which photosynthesis
takes place. Also called photic zone. Com-
pare aphotic zone
Eurobeach Eurobeach noun a beach in any of the
countries of the European Union that meets
the EU regulations on the content of bacte-
ria in the water, making it safe for swim-
ming
Europarc Europarc noun a group of government
and non-government organisations con-
cerned with the management of protected
areas
European Environment Agency European Environment Agency
noun an EU organisation with responsibili-
ty for environmental matters. Abbr EEA
European European Union Union noun an alliance of 25 European countries, originally established with six members in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome. Among its powers are those for environmental and agricultural policy in its member states. Abbr EU (NOTE: formerly
called the European Community or Euro-
pean Economic Community)
‘NOTE: formerly called the European Commission or European Economic Community or common market; in 2004 there will be ? States in the EU…???’
European Union Nature Informa- European Union Nature Information Service tion Service noun a source of information on environmentally important matters in Europe, which also aims to encourage the use of terms referring to the environment in a standard way Eurosite Eurosite noun a group of European government and non-government organisations concerned with the management of wildlife sites, currently with 75 members in 17 countries euryhaline euryhaline adjective referring to an organism which can survive a wide range of salt concentrations in its environment. Compare stenohaline euryphagous euryphagous adjective referring to organisms that consume a variety of different foods eurythermous eurythermous adjective referring to an organism which can survive a wide range of temperatures in its environment. Compare stenothermous eurytopic eurytopic adjective referring to organisms that tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions eusociality eusociality noun a situation in which a eusocial society exists eusocial eusocial society society noun a group of animals such as ants, bees and wasps in which some individuals are workers and do not reproduce, while others are fertile eustatic eustatic change change noun a change resulting from worldwide variations in sea level, as distinct from regional change caused by ground movements in a particular area eutectic eutectic point point noun the temperature at which a eutectic mixture freezes, which is the lowest freezing point of any constituent of the mixture eutherian eutherian noun a mammal whose young develop within the womb attached to maternal tissues by a placenta. Subclass: Eutheria. Also called placental mammal eutrophic eutrophic adjective referring to water which is high in dissolved mineral nutrients. ı dystrophic, mesotrophic, oligo-
trophic
79
exosphere
eutrophication eutrophication
,
eutrophy
noun
the
process by which water becomes full of
phosphates and other mineral nutrients
which encourage the growth of algae and
kill other organisms
evaporate evaporate verb to change from being a
liquid to being a vapour, or to change a liq-
uid into a vapour ć In the heat of the day,
water evaporates from the surface of the
earth. ć The sun evaporated all the water
in the puddle. Opposite condense
evaporation evaporation noun the process of chang-
ing from a liquid into a vapour
evaporative evaporative adjective able to evaporate
evaporative evaporative emission emission noun a pollut-
ant emitted through the evaporation of a
substance, e.g. from petrol when filling a
tank
evapotranspiration evapotranspiration noun the move-
ment of water from soil through a plant un-
til it is released into the atmosphere from
leaf surfaces
evapotranspire evapotranspire verb to lose water into
the atmosphere by evaporation and transpi-
ration
event event noun 1. an action or activity 2. a cat-
astrophic event such as an earthquake or
eruption
evergreen evergreen adjective referring to a plant
which has leaves all year round í noun a
tree or shrub which has leaves all year
round (NOTE: Yew trees and holly are ever-
greens.) ̈ compare (all senses) decidu-
ous
evolution evolution noun heritable changes in or-
ganisms which take place over a period of
time involving several generations (NOTE:
Significant evolutionary changes can occur
in a species in relatively few generations.)
evolutionary evolutionary adjective referring to evo-
lution ć Evolutionary changes have taken
place over millions of years.
evolutionary evolutionary ecology ecology noun the study
of the impact of evolution on current eco-
logical patterns
evolve evolve verb 1. to develop gradually ć The
strategy is still evolving. 2. to change and
develop gradually over millions of years
from primitive forms into the range of plant
and animal species known on Earth
examination examination noun the activity of look-
ing at someone or something carefully ć
They carried out an examination of the
problem.
exceed exceed verb to be more than expected,
needed or allowed ć The concentration of
radioactive material in the waste exceeded
the government limits.
exceedance exceedance noun the degree to which the concentration of a pollutant is more than a standard or permissible limit ć exposure of the population to exceedances of air quality standards
excess excess noun an amount or quantity greater than what is expected, needed or allowed í adjective more than is expected, needed or allowed
excessive excessive adjective more than expected, needed or allowed ć Excessive ultraviolet radiation can cause skin cancer.
exchange exchange noun the act of taking one thing and putting another in its place ć gas exchange
exclosure exclosure noun an area fenced to prevent animals from entering. Compare enclo-
sure
exclusion exclusion zone zone noun an area that people may not enter because a hazardous substance has been released
excrement excrement noun faeces
excreta excreta plural noun the waste material excreted from the body of an animal, e.g. faeces, urine, droppings or sweat
excrete excrete verb to pass waste matter out of the body ć The urinary system separates waste liquids from the blood and excretes them as urine. Compare secrete
excretion excretion noun the passing of the waste products of metabolism such as faeces, urine, sweat or carbon dioxide out of the body. Compare secretion
exhaust exhaust verb to use something up completely ć The supplies are exhausted. í noun 1. waste gases from an engine 2. the part of an engine through which waste gases pass ć Fumes from vehicle exhausts contribute a large percentage of air pollution in towns.
exhaustion exhaustion noun the complete using up of something ć the exhaustion of the area’s natural resources
exhaustive exhaustive adjective complete and thorough ć an exhaustive reply to the safety concerns ć an exhaustive search for the information
existing existing chemicals chemicals plural noun the chemicals listed in the European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substances between January 1971 and September 1981, a total of over 100,000. Compare
new chemicals
exosphere exosphere noun the highest layers of Earth’s atmosphere, more than 650km above the surface and composed almost entirely of hydrogen
exothermic reaction
80
exothermic exothermic reaction reaction noun a chemical reaction in which heat is given out to the surroundings. Compare endothermic re-
action
exotic exotic adjective referring to an organism or species that is not native and has been introduced from another place or region í noun an organism or species that is not native to its current environment ̈ also called (all senses) alien
exotoxin exotoxin noun a poison produced by bacteria which affects parts of the body away from the place of infection
expanded expanded adjective referring to plastic or polystyrene made into a hard lightweight foam by blowing air or gas into it
expenditure expenditure noun 1. the spending of money ć agreed the expenditure of public funds for this project 2. the amount of money spent
experiment experiment noun a scientific test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate or discover something ć Experiments have shown that time to flowering is affected by daylength. í verb to carry out a scientific test under controlled conditions in order to demonstrate or discover something ˽ to experiment with something to try something to see how it performs or affects you ć experimenting with planting density ˽ to experiment on someone or something to use someone or something in an experiment ć experimented on laboratory mice
experimental experimental adjective referring to something still at an early stage of development ć the experimental and testing stages of a new technique
experimentally experimentally adverb by carrying out experiments
explode explode verb 1. to burst, or to make something burst, violently 2. to increase rapidly ć Population numbers have exploded.
exploit exploit verb 1. to take advantage of something ć Ladybirds have exploited the sudden increase in the numbers of insects. 2. to use a natural resource ć exploiting the natural wealth of the forest 3. to treat something or someone unfairly for personal benefit
exploitation exploitation noun 1. the action of taking advantage of something 2. the utilisation of natural resources ć Further exploitation of the coal deposits is not economic. 3. the unfair use of something or treatment of someone for personal benefit
explosion explosion noun 1. a release of energy in
a sudden and often violent way ć an explo-
sion caused by a bomb 2. a sudden increase
ć An explosion in cases of the virus disease
is predicted.
explosive explosive adjective 1. able to or designed
to burst or explode ć an explosive device ć
an explosive mechanism of seed dispersal
2. causing a rapid increase ć explosive
growth
exponential exponential adjective increasing more
and more rapidly
exponential exponential growth growth noun a type of
growth rate of a population which varies in
proportion to the number of individuals
present: at first the growth rate is slow, then
it rapidly increases, theoretically to infinity,
but in practice it falls off as the population
exhausts its food, accumulates poisonous
waste, etc.
exponentially exponentially adverb more and more
rapidly ć We can expect this population to
increase exponentially over the next few
years.
expose expose verb to subject something or
someone to an action or an effect ć When
the slope of a hill is exposed to solar radia-
tion, wind currents are set up. ć She had
been exposed to the contaminant at work.
exposed exposed adjective 1. referring to some-
thing or someone not covered or hidden ć
painted all the exposed surfaces 2. not pro-
tected from environmental effects ć left in
an exposed position on the hillside
exposure exposure noun 1. the act or process of
being exposed to an agent ć exposure to ra-
diation 2. the harmful effect of having no
protection from the weather ć suffering
from exposure after spending a night in the
snow
exposure exposure assessment assessment noun an as-
sessment of the amount of exposure to a
chemical or other hazard to which a popu-
lation has been subjected
exposure exposure dose dose noun the amount of ra-
diation to which someone has been exposed
ex-situ ex-situ adjective referring to the study,
maintenance or conservation of an organ-
ism away from its natural surroundings.
Compare in-situ
extant extant species species noun a species which
still exists and is not extinct
extensification extensification noun the use of less in-
tensive farming methods. Compare inten-
sification
extensive agriculture extensive agriculture
, extensive
farming noun a way of farming which is
characterised by a low level of inputs per
81
eyesore
unit of land. Compare intensive agriculture extensive extensive system system noun a farming system which uses a large amount of land per unit of stock or output ć an extensive system of pig farming external external adjective referring to the outside of something ć external appearance Opposite internal extinct extinct adjective 1. referring to a species which has died out and no longer exists ć Several native species have become extinct since sailors in the nineteenth century introduced dogs to the island. 2. referring to a volcano which is no longer erupts. Compare dormant extinction extinction noun the process of a species dying out extinction extinction rate rate noun the rate at which species become extinct extinction extinction vortex vortex noun a situation where genetic traits and environmental conditions combine to make a species gradually become extinct extinguishing extinguishing agent agent noun 1. a chemical substance which makes another substance react 2. a substance or organism which causes a disease or condition
extract extract noun a preparation made by removing water or alcohol from a substance, leaving only the essence í verb 1. to take something out of somewhere ć Vanilla essence is extracted from an orchid. 2. to obtain something such as information or data from a source 3. to take something such as a mineral out of the ground
extraction extraction noun the act or process of removing something ć The extraction of coal from the mine is becoming too costly.
extractor extractor noun a device that extracts something, e.g. a machine which removes fumes or gas
extrusive extrusive adjective referring to rock formed from molten lava which has pushed up through the Earth’s crust
exurbia exurbia noun the area outside a city or town
eye eye noun 1. a sense organ that is used for seeing 2. the central point of a tropical storm, where pressure is lowest (NOTE: The
eye can be several kilometres wide and may take some minutes to pass.)
eyesore eyesore noun something which is unpleasant to look at ć The lake full of old bottles and cans is an eyesore.
F
FF symbol 1. Fahrenheit 2. fluorine
FF
1
noun
(in
breeding
experiments)
the
first
generation of offspring from a cross be-
tween two plants or animals
FF
1
hybrid
noun
an
animal
or
plant
that
is
the result of a cross between two different
plants or animals (NOTE: F1 hybrids can be crossbred to produce F2 hybrids and the process can be continued for many gener-
ations.)
facies facies noun the characteristic appearance
of something such as an animal or plant
facilitation facilitation noun a situation in which a
developing community changes an envi-
ronment allowing other species to invade
facility facility noun a building or site with a par-
ticular function ć a processing facility ć a
recycling facility í plural noun facilities
the building, equipment or resources which
can be used to do something ć laboratory
facilities ć leisure facilities
factor factor noun 1. something that has an in-
fluence on something else ć Annual rain-
fall is an important factor in affecting plant
growth. 2. the amount by which something
is multiplied ˽ by a factor of indicating a
quantity by which a stated quantity is mul-
tiplied or divided, so as to indicate an in-
crease or decrease in a measurement ć The
number of plants in the quadrat had in-
creased by a factor of 10.
factory factory noun a building where products
are manufactured ć a chemical factory
factory factory farm farm noun a farm that uses inten-
sive methods of rearing animals
factory factory farming farming noun a highly intensive
method of rearing animals characterised by
keeping large numbers of animals indoors
in confined spaces and feeding them proc-
essed foods, with the use of drugs to control
diseases
facultative facultative adjective describing an or-
ganism that usually exists in a particular set
of circumstances but is also able to do so in
different circumstances ć a facultative
anaerobe ć A facultative parasite can also
live as a saprophyte. Compare obligate
faecal faecal adjective referring to faeces (NOTE:
The US spelling is fecal.)
faeces faeces plural noun solid waste matter
passed from the bowels of a human or other
animal after food has been eaten and digested (NOTE: The US spelling is feces.) Fahrenheit Fahrenheit noun a scale of temperatures on which the freezing and boiling points of water are 32° and 212°, respectively. Compare Celsius. Symbol F (NOTE: The Fahrenheit scale is still commonly used in the USA.)
fail fail verb to be unsuccessful ć Attempts to reach agreement on the environmental agenda failed.
fall fall noun 1. a reduction ć a fall in pressure 2. the amount of rain or snow which comes down at any one time ć an overnight fall of snow 3. US autumn í verb 1. to become less in amount ć atmospheric pressure is falling 2. to be included within the range of something ć Design methods fall into four groups. 3. to come down freely because of gravity ć Light rain may fall occasionally. 4. to occur at a particular time ć The vernal equinox falls in March. (NOTE: falling – fell
– fallen)
fallout fallout noun the radioactive matter which falls from the atmosphere as particles, either in rain or as dust fallout fallout shelter shelter noun a building where people are protected from radioactive material which falls from the atmosphere after a nuclear explosion fallow fallow noun a period when land is not being used for growing crops for a period so that nutrients can build up again in the soil or to control weeds ć Shifting cultivation is characterised by short cropping periods and long fallows. í adjective referring to land that is not being used for growing crops for a period ˽ to let land lie fallow to allow land to remain without being cultivated for a period falls falls plural noun a large waterfall (NOTE:
often used in names: Niagara Falls, Victoria
Falls)
fallspeed fallspeed noun the speed at which raindrops or dry particles fall through the air fallstreak fallstreak noun a column of ice particles which are falling through a cloud family family noun 1. a group of people, or of some other animals, composed of parents and offspring 2. a group of genera which have some characteristics in common ć the
83
fauna
plant family Orchidaceae ć Tigers and leopards are members of the cat family. (NOTE: Scientific names of families of animals end in -idae and those of families of plants end in -ae.)
famine famine noun a period of severe shortage of food ć When the monsoon failed for the second year, the threat of famine became more likely.
famine famine food food noun a plant that is regarded as suitable for eating only when other food is scarce
famine famine relief relief noun the supplies of basic food sent to help people who are starving
fanning fanning noun the spreading out of a horizontal layer of smoke and other pollutants from a chimney
fan fan out out verb to spread out from a central point
FAO FAO abbr Food and Agriculture Organization
farm farm noun an area of land used for growing crops and keeping animals to provide food and the buildings associated with it í verb to run a farm
Farm Farm Assured Assured noun a UK government scheme to inform the public that farm produce is of good quality according to a set of standards. It is symbolised by a little red tractor on the packaging.
farmed farmed adjective grown or produced commercially and not in the wild ć farmed salmon
farmer farmer noun someone who runs or owns a farm
farming farming noun running a farm, including activities such as keeping animals for sale or for their products and growing crops
farming farming community community noun a group of families living near to each other and having farming as their main source of income
farmland farmland noun land on a farm which is used for growing crops or rearing animals for food
farmland farmland bird bird noun a bird that nests in an agricultural environment. Many are declining in numbers because of changes in agricultural practices.
farmland farmland bird indicator bird indicator noun a standard way of measuring the frequency of birds found in agricultural areas
‘The farmland bird indicator is calculated on the breeding populations of 20 species (including skylark, grey partridge and goldfinch), which have collectively declined by 40% since the mid1970s. (Delivering the evidence. Defra’s Science and Innovation Strategy 2003–06)’
farmstead farmstead noun a farmhouse and the farm buildings around it farmworker farmworker noun a person who works on a farm farmyard farmyard noun the area around farm buildings farmyard farmyard manure manure noun manure formed of cattle excreta mixed with straw, used as a fertiliser. Abbr FYM fast breeder fast breeder reactor reactor, fast breeder noun a nuclear reactor which produces more fissile material than it consumes, using fast-moving neutrons and making plutonium-239 from uranium-238, thereby increasing the reactor’s efficiency. Abbr FBR fat fat noun 1. a compound of fatty acids and glycerol. ı lipid 2. a white oily substance in the body of mammals, which stores energy and protects the body against cold (NOTE:
Fat has no plural when it means the substance in the body of mammals; the plural fats is used to mean different types of fat.)
í adjective 1. describing the body of a large person or animal (NOTE: fat – fatter – fattest) 2. referring to an animal which has been reared for meat production and which has reached the correct standard for sale in a market fatal fatal adjective causing death ć a fatal accident ć a fatal dose fat-soluble fat-soluble adjective referring to a substance that can be dissolved in fat ć Vitamin D is fat-soluble. ć Polychlorinated biphenyls are fat-soluble and collect in the
blubber of seals. fatstock fatstock noun livestock which has been fattened for meat production fatten fatten verb to give animals food so as to prepare them for slaughter fatty fatty adjective containing a lot of fat ć Fatty foods contribute to the risk of obesity. fault fault noun 1. a feature that spoils the overall quality of something ć a design fault 2. an error, especially in a calculation 3. a change in the position of the rock layers of the Earth’s crust in response to stress, leading to earthquakes fault fault line line noun a line of cracks in the Earth’s crust occurring where changes in the position of rock layers have taken place and along which earthquakes are likely to occur fault fault plane plane noun the face of the rock at a fault where one mass of rock has slipped against another fauna fauna noun the wild animals and birds which live naturally in a specific area. Compare flora
favourable condition
84
favourable favourable condition condition noun a category indicating a good state of conservation of an area of the environment FBC FBC abbr fluidised-bed combustion FBR FBR abbr fast breeder reactor FDA FDA abbr Food and Drug Administration Fe Fe symbol iron feasibility feasibility noun the practical likelihood of being able to do something ć a report on the feasibility of introducing restricted car access fecal fecal adjective US spelling of faecal feces feces plural noun US spelling of faeces fecundity fecundity noun the fertility of a plant or animal fecundity fecundity schedule schedule noun a chart showing the number of eggs or offspring produced by a group during a specific period, indicating whether the population of the group has increased or decreased feed feed verb 1. to take food ć The herd feeds here at dusk. 2. to give food to a person or an animal 3. to provide fertiliser for plants or soil 4. to supply or add to something 5. to lead into and so make larger ć Several small streams feed into the river. í noun 1. food given to animals and birds ć Traces of pesticide were found in the cattle feed. 2. fertiliser for plants or soil ć Tomato plants need liquid feed twice a week at this time of year. feed feed additive additive noun a supplement added to the feed of farm livestock, particularly pigs and poultry, to promote growth, e.g. an antibiotic or hormone feed feed concentrate concentrate noun an animal feed which has a high food value relative to volume feeder feeder noun 1. an animal that eats particular food or eats in a particular way ć a night feeder 2. a device which supplies something ć a bird feeder 3. something which supplies or adds to something else of the same type feed feed grain grain noun a cereal which is fed to animals and birds, e.g. wheat or maize feeding feeding ground ground noun an area where animals come to feed ć Estuaries are the winter feeding grounds for thousands of migratory birds. feeding feeding strategy strategy noun the tactics used by an animal to obtain food feedingstuff feedingstuff noun same as feedstuff feedlot feedlot noun a field with small pens in which cattle are fattened feedstuff feedstuff noun food for farm animals. Also called feedingstuff
feldspar feldspar
,
feldspath
noun
a
common
type
of crystal rock formed of silicates
fell fell noun a high area of open moorland in
the north of England í verb to cut down a
tree. ı clearfell
female female adjective 1. referring to an animal
that produces ova and bears young 2. refer-
ring to a flower which has carpels but not
stamens, or a plant that produces such flow-
ers
fen fen noun an area of flat marshy land, with
plants such as reeds and mosses growing in
alkaline water
fence fence noun a barrier put round a field, ei-
ther to mark the boundary or to prevent an-
imals entering or leaving í verb to put a
fence round an area of land
fenland fenland noun a large area of flat marshy
land with alkaline water
feral feral adjective referring to an animal
which was formerly domesticated and has
since reverted to living wild ć The native
population of rabbits was exterminated by
feral cats.
fermentation fermentation noun the process by which
organic compounds such as carbohydrates
are broken down by enzymes from micro-
organisms such as yeasts to produce energy
fern fern noun a type of green flowerless plant
with large leaves (fronds) that propagates
by spores. ı pteridophyte (NOTE: Ferns
grow in damp rocky places and wood-
lands.)
ferric ferric oxide oxide noun a red insoluble oxide
of iron. Formula: Fe2O3. ferro- ferro- prefix referring to or containing iron
ferrous ferrous adjective referring to or contain-
ing iron
ferruginous ferruginous adjective referring to rock
or water which contains iron
fertile fertile adjective 1. referring to an animal
or plant that is able to produce offspring by
sexual reproduction. Opposite sterile 2. re-
ferring to soil with a high concentration of
nutrients that is able to produce good crops
fertilisation fertilisation noun the joining of an ovum
and a sperm to form a zygote and so start
the development of an embryo
fertilise fertilise verb 1. (of a sperm) to join with
an ovum 2. (of a male) to make a female
pregnant 3. to put fertiliser on crops or soil
fertiliser fertiliser noun a chemical or natural sub-
stance spread and mixed with soil to stimu-
late plant growth
COMMENT: Organic materials used as fertilisers include manure, slurry, rotted vegetable waste, bonemeal, fishmeal and seaweed. Inorganic fertilisers such as pow-
85
fire climax
dered lime or sulfur are also used. In commercial agriculture, artificially prepared fertilisers (manufactured com-
pounds containing nitrogen, potassium and other chemicals) are most often used, but if excessive use of them is made, all the chemicals are not taken up by plants and the excess is leached out of the soil
into ground water or rivers where it may cause algal bloom.
fertility fertility noun 1. the state of being fertile 2.
the proportion of eggs which develop into
young
fertility fertility rate rate noun the number of births
per year, shown, in humans, per thousand
females aged between 15 and 44
fetus fetus
,
foetus
noun
an
unborn
animal
in
the womb at the stage when all the structur-
al features are visible, i.e. after eight weeks
in humans (NOTE: The usual scientific spell-
ing is ‘fetus’, although ‘foetus’ is common in
non-technical British English usage.)
fibre fibre noun 1. a natural filament such as
cotton or a synthetic filament such as nylon
2. a long narrow plant cell with thickened
walls that forms part of a plant’s supporting
tissue, especially in the outer region of a
stem (NOTE: [all senses] The US spelling is
fiber.)
fibrous fibrous adjective made of a mass of fibres
field field noun 1. an area of land, usually sur-
rounded by a fence or hedge, used for
growing crops or for pasture 2. an area over
which something such as snow, ice or lava
is found 3. an area of natural resources, e.g.
an oilfield or coalfield 4. an area of interest
or activity ć He specialises in the field of
environmental health.
field field margin margin noun the edge of a field
field field observation observation noun an examination
made in the open air, looking at organisms
in their natural habitat, as opposed to in a
laboratory
field field research research noun a programme of sci-
entific studies carried out at a geographical
location as opposed to in a laboratory
field field station station noun a scientific research
centre located in the area being researched
field field study study noun an investigation carried
out at a geographical location as opposed to
in a laboratory
field field trial trial noun a trial that tests the ability
of a crop variety to perform under normal
cultivation conditions
fieldwork fieldwork noun scientific studies carried
out somewhere other than in a laboratory
filament filament noun the stalk of a stamen, car-
rying an anther
film film noun a thin layer, covering or coating ć a thin film of oil on the surface of the lake
ć An electrical element made of gold film is sandwiched between the layers of glass. filter filter noun a material or device through which a liquid or a gas is passed in order to separate the fluid from solid matter or to remove unwanted substances ć a fuel filter ć an oil filter filter filter basin basin noun a large tank through which drinking water is passed to be filtered filter filter bed bed noun a layer of charcoal, gravel or similar material through which liquid sewage is passed to clean it filter filter cake cake noun a deposit of semisolids or solids that separates out between layers of filtering material filter filter feeder feeder noun an animal that lives in water and feeds on small particles that it filters out of the water it takes in, e.g. a clam, sponge, or baleen whale filtrate filtrate noun a liquid which has passed through a filter filtration filtration noun the process of passing a liquid through a filter to remove solid substances fin fin noun a thin flat projection on the body of a fish final final disposal disposal noun the last stage in getting rid of waste, e.g. incineration or placing in a landfill fine fine adjective 1. describing something that is very small in size, thickness or weight 2. referring to weather that is warm and sunny, with few clouds and no rain or fog finite finite adjective referring to something that has an end ć Coal supplies are finite and are forecast to run out in 2020. finite finite resource resource plural noun a natural resource that is does not renew itself and which will potentially be completely used up, e.g. coal or oil. Opposite renewable resource fiord fiord noun another spelling of fjord fir fir noun a common evergreen coniferous tree. Genus: Abies. fir fir cone cone noun a hard oval or round structure on a fir tree containing the seeds (NOTE: The term is sometimes applied to the
cones of other trees such as pines.)
fire fire noun the process, or an area, of burning firebreak firebreak noun an area kept free of vegetation, so that a fire cannot pass across and spread to other parts of the forest or heath fire fire climax climax noun the condition by which an ecosystem is maintained by fire
-fired
86
-fired -fired suffix burning as a fuel ć coal-fired power station ć gas-fired central heating firedamp firedamp noun same as methane fire fire hazard hazard noun something that increases the risk of fire ć These piles of paper are a fire hazard. fire management fire management noun the practice of burning in a controlled and selective way grasses, brush, undergrowth and trees in an area, to maintain an ecological balance of species and prevent uncontrolled fires fire-prone fire-prone adjective liable to catch fire fire-prone fire-prone ecosystem ecosystem noun an ecosystem such as fynbos or a eucalypt forest that is likely to be frequently affected by fires fireproof fireproof adjective referring to a material or structure designed to resist the effect of fire ć A fireproof fence surrounds the forest. fire-retardant fire-retardant adjective referring to a substance which slows down the rate at which a material burns firewood firewood noun wood which is burnt to provide heat firn firn noun the spring snow on high mountains which becomes harder during the summer fish fish noun a cold-blooded vertebrate that lives in water (NOTE: Some species are eat-
en for food. Fish are high in protein, phosphorus, iodine and vitamins A and D. White fish have very little oil.) í verb to try to catch fish
fisherman fisherman noun a man who catches fish as an occupation or as a leisure activity fishery fishery noun 1. the commercial activity of catching fish 2. an area of sea where fish are caught ć The boats go each year to the rich fisheries off the north coast. fish fish farm farm noun a place where edible fish are bred or reared in special pools for sale as food fish fish farming farming noun the commercial activity of keeping fish in ponds or fenced areas of the sea for sale as food. Also called
aquaculture, aquafarming, aquiculture
fishing fishing noun the activity of catching fish as an occupation or a leisure activity ć He enjoys fishing in trout streams. fishing fishing quota quota noun the amount of a species of fish that it is permitted to catch within a period of time fish fish kill kill noun an instance of a lot of fish being killed ć Aluminium is a critical factor in fish kills. fish fish ladder ladder noun a series of pools at different levels, specially built to allow fish
such as salmon to swim up or down a river
on migration
fishless fishless lake lake noun a lake containing no
fish
fishmeal fishmeal noun a powder of dried fish,
used as an animal feed or as a fertiliser
fish fish pass pass noun a channel near a dam,
built to allow migrating fish to swim past
the dam. Also called fishway. ı fish ladder
fish fish stock stock noun the fish population from
which catches are taken, usually within a
specific fishery
fishway fishway noun same as fish pass
fissile fissile adjective 1. referring to rock which
can split or be split 2. referring to an isotope
which can split on impact with a neutron
fission fission noun 1. ‘ atomic fission 2. the
process of splitting 3. a process of repro-
duction, in which an organism splits in two
and two complete new organisms grow, as
in corals í verb (in nuclear fission) to split
an atomic nucleus ć When the plutonium is
fissioned, fast neutrons are produced.
fissure fissure noun a crack or groove
fitfit adjective 1. referring to something that
is suitable for its purpose ć This food is fit
to eat. ˽ fit-for-purpose a standard for as-
sessing the suitability of something for a
particular use 2. referring to an organism
that is well adapted or evolutionarily suc-
cessful ć survival of the fittest ć Only the
fit individuals will survive. (NOTE: fitter-fit-
test)
fitness fitness noun a measure of the evolution-
ary success of genes, traits, organisms or
populations
fixation fixation noun the act of fixing something.
ı nitrogen fixation
fjord fjord
,
fiord
noun
a
long
inlet
of
the
sea
among mountains in temperate or arctic re-
gions
flagellum flagellum noun a long thin tapering out-
growth of some cells that waves or rotates
to propel the cell (NOTE: Flagella are found
in some bacteria and protozoa, and in
sperm cells.)
flake flake noun 1. a small piece of a solid ć a
flake of rock 2. a small piece of snow which
falls from the sky. Also called snowflake
flammability flammability noun the ability of a mate-
rial to catch fire
flammable flammable adjective easily set on fire and
capable of burning fiercely and rapidly ć
Aviation gasoline is a flammable liquid.
(NOTE: Flammable and inflammable
mean the same thing. To avoid confusion, it
is recommended to use flammable.)
87
floret
flare flare noun a device that burns surplus gases to prevent them from being released into the environment, usually found on top of tall chimneys flash flash noun a sudden or periodic burst of light ć Lightning is accompanied by a brilliant flash. í verb to switch a light on and off ć He flashed his torch as a signal. flash flash flood flood noun a sudden rush of water in a stream or narrow river, often causing damage flashy flashy adjective referring to a river whose water level is rising rapidly after it has rained a lot flatfish flatfish noun a type of fish with a flattened back that lives on the bed of the sea or of a lake and has both eyes on the top of its body, e.g. plaice (NOTE: The body of a
flatfish is flattened in such a way that the fish is lying on its side. As the young fish
grows, the eye underneath moves round its head to join the one on top.)
flatworm flatworm noun a worm with a flat body, a single gut opening, and no circulatory system. Phylum: Platyhelminthes. (NOTE: Flat-
worms include both free-living species and
parasites such as flukes and tapeworms.)
flaw flaw noun a fault or error flea flea noun a small jumping insect which lives as a parasite on animals, sucking their blood and possibly spreading disease. Order: Siphonaptera. (NOTE: Historically, bu-
bonic plague was spread by fleas.)
flexible flexible adjective 1. not rigid or stiff 2. capable of responding to a variety of conditions or situations ć AC electrical energy is more flexible and more efficient than DC. flightless flightless bird bird noun a bird which has small wings and cannot fly, e.g. an ostrich or a penguin flocculant flocculant noun a substance added to water as it is treated to encourage impurities to settle flocculation flocculation noun the gathering together of particles into lumps ć flocculation of yeast in brewing ć The flocculation of particles is very important in making clay soils easy to work. flock flock noun a large group of birds or some farm animals such as sheep and goats ć a flock of geese ć a flock of sheep (NOTE: The
word used for a group of cattle, deer or pigs
is herd.)
flood flood noun a large amount of water covering land that is usually dry, caused by phenomena such as melting snow, heavy rain, high tides or storms í verb to cover dry land with a large amount of water ć The
river bursts its banks and floods the whole
valley twice a year in the rainy season.
flood flood alleviation alleviation, flood control noun
the avoidance of the possibility of flooding
by controlling the flow of water in rivers
with structures such as dams and embank-
ments
flood control flood control measures measures noun ways of
managing water flow to reduce the possi-
bility of flooding by rivers or the sea
flood flood damage damage noun the damage caused
by floodwater
flood flood defence defence noun the measures taken
to protect low-lying areas from flooding by
rivers or the sea
flood flood forecasting forecasting noun the process of
establishing when an area is at risk of being
flooded, taking into account local features,
climate change, the likelihood of extreme
weather, and socio-economic factors
floodgate floodgate noun a gate in a weir or dyke,
designed to control water flow
flooding flooding noun the uncontrolled spread of
a large amount of water onto land that is
usually dry ć Severe flooding has been re-
ported after the heavy rain overnight.
(NOTE: About 10% of the land area of Eng-
land is at risk of flooding.)
flood flood plain plain noun a wide flat part of the
bottom of a valley which is usually covered
with water when the river floods
flood flood storage storage noun the measures taken
to control and retain the large amount of
water produced in a flood until it can dis-
perse naturally
flood flood tide tide noun a tide that is rising. Com-
pare ebb tide
flood flood warning warning noun an alert that there is
likely to be a flood
floodwater floodwater noun water that spreads un-
controlled onto land that is usually dry ć
After the floodwater receded the centre of
the town was left buried in mud.
floor floor noun the ground beneath something
ć fish that live on the floor of the ocean ć
The forest floor is covered with decaying
vegetation.
flora flora noun the wild plants that grow natu-
rally in a specific area. Compare fauna
Flora Flora
,
flora
noun
a
book
or
list
describing
the plants of a specific area ć a Flora of the
British Isles
floral floral adjective referring to plants or flow-
ers
floret floret noun a little flower that forms part
of a larger flower head
flourish
88
flourish flourish verb to live or grow well and in-
crease in numbers ć The colony of rabbits
flourished in the absence of any predators.
flow flow verb to move or run smoothly with
continuity ć Water flows down the outer
surface, cooling the interior. í noun 1.
continuous movement of a fluid in a partic-
ular direction ć the flow of water down-
stream 2. the rate at which a substance is
moving ć The meter measures the flow of
water through the pipe. 3. the movement of
the sea or water affected by tides towards a
shore as the tide rises. Compare ebb 4. an
area of peat bog, especially in Scotland ć
the flow country
flower flower noun the reproductive part of a
seed-bearing plant (NOTE: Some flowers
are brightly coloured to attract pollinating
insects and birds and usually consist of
protective sepals and bright petals sur-
rounding the stamens and stigma. Many
are cultivated for their colour and perfume.)
flowerless flowerless adjective without flowers
flowmeter flowmeter noun a meter attached to a
pipe to measure the speed at which a liquid
or gas moves through the pipe
fluctuate fluctuate verb to vary or change irregu-
larly ć The magnetic field will fluctuate at
the supply frequency.
fluctuation fluctuation noun an irregular variation or
change ć Fluctuations in the water table
affect the growth of plants.
flue flue noun a chimney or other structure
through which gas or smoke is released
from a furnace or stove ć Gases are passed
directly from the flue into the atmosphere.
flue flue gas gas noun a gas produced by a burn-
ing substance that is released into the at-
mosphere from a chimney
fluid fluid noun a substance whose molecules
move freely past one another and that takes
the shape of its container (NOTE: Both liq-
uids and gases are fluids.)
fluidise fluidise verb to make a solid move in the
manner of a fluid (NOTE: One way to do this
is by pulverising it into a fine powder and
passing a gas through to induce flow.)
fluidised-bed combustion fluidised-bed combustion
noun a
method of burning fluidised low-grade fuel
while keeping the emission of pollutant
gases to a minimum. Abbr FBC
fluke fluke noun a parasitic flatworm (NOTE:
Flukes may settle inside the liver, blood-
stream or in other parts of the body.)
fluoridate fluoridate verb to add sodium fluoride to
drinking water to help prevent tooth decay
fluoridation fluoridation noun the addition of sodium
fluoride to drinking water to help prevent
tooth decay
fluoride fluoride noun a chemical compound of
fluorine, usually with sodium, potassium or
tin
fluorine fluorine noun a yellowish gas (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is F; the atomic number is
9 and the atomic weight is 19.00.)
fluorocarbon fluorocarbon noun an inert compound
of fluorine and carbon, with high tempera-
ture stability. ı chlorofluorocarbon
fluorosis fluorosis noun a condition caused by ex-
cessive fluoride in drinking water or food
(NOTE: It causes discoloration of teeth and
affects the milk yields of cattle.)
flush flush verb 1. to clear a tube such as a sew-
er by sending water through it 2. to pass
water through a tube or system in order to
remove something and clean it
flush flush toilet toilet noun a toilet in which the ex-
creta are washed into the sewage system by
a flow of water. Compare chemical toilet,
earth closet
fluvial fluvial
,
fluviatile
adjective
referring
to
rivers
flux flux noun the rate at which heat, energy or
radiation flows
fly fly noun a small insect with two wings. Or-
der: Diptera. í verb to move through the air
(NOTE: fly – flew – flown)
fly fly ash ash noun solid particles in the air that
have come from burning coal or another
solid fuel ć The cloud contained particles
of fly ash. (NOTE: Fly ash can be collected
and used to make bricks.)
fly-tipper fly-tipper noun a person who dumps rub-
bish somewhere other than at an official
rubbish dump
fly-tipping fly-tipping noun the dumping of rubbish
somewhere other than at an official site
‘A quarter of all farms in England and Wales
have experienced fly-tipping on their land in re-
cent years. The total quantity of waste tipped in
2001 was estimated at 600000 tons. (Agricultur-
al Waste: Opportunities for Change. Information
from the Agricultural Waste Stakeholders’ Fo-
rum)’
foam foam noun a mass of bubbles of air or gas
in a liquid film ć detergent foam on the riv-
er ć foam fire extinguishers
foam foam plastic plastic noun plastic with bubbles
blown into it to make a light material used
for packing. Also called plastic foam
fodder fodder
,
fodder
crop
noun
plant
material
or a crop which is grown to give to animals
as food, e.g. grass or clover ć winter fodder
FoE FoE abbr Friends of the Earth
foehn foehn noun another spelling of föhn
89
forecast
foetus foetus noun another spelling of fetus
(NOTE: The usual scientific spelling is ‘fe-
tus’, although ‘foetus’ is common in non-
technical British English usage.)
fog fog noun a thick mist made up of tiny
drops of water
foggy foggy adjective referring to weather con-
ditions when there is fog
föhn föhn
,
foehn
noun
a
warm
dry
wind
which
blows down the side of a mountain away
from the prevailing wind. It occurs when
moist air rises up the mountain on the wind-
ward side, loses its moisture as rain or snow
and then flows down the other side as a dry
wind. Compare chinook
foliage foliage noun the leaves on plants ć In a
forest, animals are hard to see through the
thick foliage on the trees.
foliar foliar adjective referring to leaves
foliar foliar spray spray noun 1. a method of apply-
ing pesticides or liquid nutrients as droplets
to plant leaves ć needs weekly foliar sprays
2. a pesticide or liquid nutrient applied to
plant leaves as droplets
folic folic acid acid noun a vitamin in the vitamin B
complex found in milk, liver, yeast and
green plants such as spinach
follicle follicle noun 1. a fruit in the form of a dry
case that splits along one side to release the
seeds 2. the small structure in the skin from
which each hair develops 3. one of many
small structures in the ovaries where egg
cells develop
food food noun 1. the nutrient material eaten by
animals for energy and growth 2. the nutri-
ent material applied to plants as fertiliser
Food and Agriculture Organiza- Food and Agriculture Organization
tion noun an international organisation
that is an agency of the United Nations es-
tablished with the purpose of improving
standards of nutrition and eradicating mal-
nutrition and hunger. Abbr FAO
Food and Drug Administration Food and Drug Administration
noun a US government department that
protects the public against unsafe foods,
drugs and cosmetics. Abbr FDA
food food balance balance noun the balance between
food supply and the demand for food from
a population
food food chain chain noun a series of organisms
that pass energy and minerals from one to
another as each provides food for the next
(NOTE: The first organism in the food chain
is the producer and the rest are consum-
ers.)
COMMENT: Two basic types of food chain exist: the grazing food chain and the detrital food chain, based on plant-eaters and
detritus-eaters respectively. In practice, food chains are interconnected, making up food webs.
food food colouring colouring noun a substance used to colour food
food food grain grain noun a cereal crop used as food for humans, e.g. wheat, barley or rye
food food mile mile noun a measure of the distance that food is transported from its place of origin to the consumer
food food pyramid pyramid noun a chart of a food chain showing the number of organisms at each level
food food safety safety noun the issues surrounding the production, handling, storage and cooking of food that determine whether or not it is safe to eat
food food scare scare noun a situation when food is believed to be unsafe or contaminated, often leading to many people refusing to buy it
food food security security noun the situation that exists when people have both physical access to, and the economic means to buy, sufficient food of a quality that meets their nutritional needs and food preferences
Food Standards Food Standards Agency Agency noun a British government agency set up in 2000 to offer advice on food safety and quality. Abbr
FSA
foodstuff foodstuff noun something that can be used as food ć cereals, vegetables and other foodstuffs
food food supply supply noun 1. the production of food and the way in which it gets to the consumer 2. a stock of food ć The ants will vigorously defend their food supply.
food food web web noun a series of food chains that are linked together in an ecosystem
footpath footpath noun a route along which people walk on foot but along which vehicles are not permitted ć Long-distance footpaths have been created through the mountain regions.
footprint footprint noun the resources that an individual or organisation consumes ć the ecological footprint of the building
forage forage noun a crop planted for animals to eat in the field í verb to look for food ć The woodpecker forages in the forest canopy for insects.
force force of gravity of gravity noun same as gravity
forecast forecast noun a description of what it is thought will happen in the future on the basis of current knowledge ć the weather forecast ć population forecasts ć a forecast of the requirements for new homes
forecasting
90
forecasting forecasting noun the activity of using current knowledge to describe what might happen in the future foreign foreign adjective belonging to or coming from another country foreshock foreshock noun a small shock that comes before a main earthquake. ı aftershock foreshore foreshore noun an area of sand or pebbles which is only covered by the sea when there are very high tides forest forest noun 1. an area of land (more than 0.5 ha), 10% of which is occupied by trees 2. same as plantation í verb to manage a forest, by cutting wood as necessary, and planting new trees forest forest conservation conservation noun the active maintenance of forests by controlled felling and planting forest forest degradation degradation noun the loss of the natural resources in areas covered by forests, whether permanent or reversible forest forest dieback dieback noun a disease affecting pine trees in which the pine needles turn yellow. Also called Waldsterben forester forester noun a person who manages woodland and plantations of trees forest forest fire fire noun a sudden intense fire that spreads rapidly and often destroys a very large wooded area (NOTE: Some trees such
as eucalyptus grow again from their blackened stumps and some seeds only germinate after experiencing the intense heat of
such a fire.)
forest forest floor floor noun the ground at the base of the trees in a forest forest forest management management noun the conservation and regeneration of the ecological resources of a forest while maintaining its productivity forest forest regeneration regeneration noun the process of new trees growing again on land that was formerly wooded, whether naturally or as a result of planting schemes forestry forestry noun the management of forests, woodlands and plantations of trees Forest Stewardship Certification Forest Stewardship Certification noun a mark of recognition by the Forest Stewardship Council, based in the USA, that a forest is being managed in an environmentally responsible, socially beneficial and economically viable way. Abbr
FSC
forest forest tree tree noun a large tree of the type that grows in a forest formation formation noun 1. the way in which something is formed, shaped or arranged ć a formation of flower buds 2. the shape or structure that something has ć The geese
flew in a V formation. 3. a structure formed of layers of rock ć an unusual rock formation forward forward verb to improve or send on something
fossil fossil noun the remains of an ancient animal or plant found preserved in rock fossil fossil fuel fuel noun a substance containing carbon formed from the decomposed remains of prehistoric plants, e.g. oil, natural gas or peat fossilised fossilised adjective referring to an animal or plant that has become a fossil
fossil fossil record record noun the information about ancient climate and species preserved in fossils fossil fossil water water noun water that has accumulated in underground strata over millions of years and is therefore not a renewable resource foul foul water water noun water containing waste or sewage founder founder crop crop noun a crop that was one of the earliest to be used and developed by humans, e.g. wheat, barley, lentils and chickpeas founder founder effect effect noun the existence of low levels of genetic variation due to a new population being established by only a few original individuals. ı genetic bottleneck
fowl fowl noun a bird, especially a hen, raised on a farm for food. ı waterfowl Fr Fr symbol francium fraction fraction noun a part of a whole unit, expressed as one figure above another, e.g. ¼ or ½ fractional fractional distillation distillation noun a distillation process in which different fractions of a mixture of liquids are collected at different points during the process fractional fractional process process noun a process that separates out the components of a mixture fragile fragile adjective referring to something that is easily broken or damaged ć a fragile glass tube ć The desert is a fragile environment. fragment fragment noun 1. a small piece of something ć a fragment of rock 2. a piece of DNA, especially one cut by an enzyme ć a restriction fragment í verb to break into pieces framework framework noun 1. the supporting structure round which something is made or built ć This house has a timber framework. 2. a set of ideas or principles that form the basis of something that will be developed more at a later stage ć The draft report will provide a framework for our discussions.
91
fruticose
Framework Convention on Climate Framework Convention on Climate Change Change noun a treaty agreed at the Earth Summit requiring states to take steps to limit the emission of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, believed to be responsible for global warming
francium francium noun a naturally radioactive element (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Fr;
the atomic number is 87 and the atomic weight is 223.)
free free adjective 1. not attached, confined or controlled 2. chemically uncombined í verb to release something or someone from constraint
freedom freedom to roam to roam phrase ‘ Country-
side and Rights of Way Act
free-living free-living animal animal noun an animal that exists in its environment without being a parasite on another
free free radical radical noun an atom or group of atoms that is highly reactive due to the presence of an unpaired electron
free-range free-range eggs eggs noun eggs from hens that are allowed to run about in the open and eat more natural food
free-swimming free-swimming adjective same as pe-
lagic
free temperature free temperature rise rise noun the difference between the temperature outside a building and the free heat inside it (NOTE: If
a building is well insulated, the difference can be as much as 10K.)
freeze freeze verb 1. (of liquid) to become solid as a result of a drop in temperature 2. to preserve something such as food by keeping it at a very low temperature it 3. (of weather) to be so cold that water turns to ice ć It will freeze tomorrow. Opposite melt 4. to become or remain motionless to avoid the attention of predators ć These small birds freeze if a hawk passes overhead. (NOTE: freeze – froze – frozen)
freeze freeze drying drying noun a method of preserving food or tissue specimens by freezing rapidly and drying in a vacuum
freezer freezer noun an appliance for preserving perishable items by keeping them at a very low temperature
frequency frequency noun 1. the number of times something happens in a given period of time 2. the probability of a item occurring in a sample 3. the percentage occurrence of a single species in a set of samples
fresh fresh adjective 1. not used, not dirty 2. not tinned or frozen ć Fresh fish is less fatty than tinned fish. ć Fresh vegetables are expensive in winter.
fresh fresh air air noun the air outside buildings or other structures ć They came out of the office into the fresh air.
fresh fresh water water noun water in rivers and lakes which contains almost no salt. Compare salt water freshwater freshwater adjective 1. containing fresh water ć freshwater lakes 2. living in fresh water ć freshwater fish such as pike friable friable adjective referring to soil which is light and crumbles easily into fragments fridge fridge mountain mountain noun the unexpected result of an EU decision that required CFCs to be recovered from fridges that were being thrown away, because there was not enough special equipment to do the job and the fridges had to be stored Friends Friends of the Earth of the Earth noun a pressure group formed to influence local and central governments on environmental matters. Abbr FoE frond frond noun a large compound leaf, divided into many sections, such as that found on ferns and palm trees front front noun 1. the forward part or surface ć The entrance is at the front. 2. same as
weather front
frontal frontal adjective referring to the forward part or surface area of something ć the frontal area frost frost noun the deposit of ice that forms on surfaces when the temperature is below the freezing point of water ć frost on the windowpanes
frosty frosty adjective referring to an air temperature below 0°C ć a frosty night fructose fructose noun a sugar with six carbon atoms, which together with glucose forms sucrose. Also called fruit sugar frugivore frugivore noun an animal that mainly eats fruit (NOTE: Many bats and birds are
frugivores.)
fruit fruit noun the structure of a plant formed after flowering and usually containing seeds. Many fruits are eaten as food. ć a diet of fresh fruit and vegetables ć A peach is a fleshy fruit. í verb (of a plant) to produce fruit ć Some varieties of apple fruit very early. fruit fruit farming farming noun the activity of growing fruit for sale fruit fruit sugar sugar noun same as fructose fruitwood fruitwood noun the wood from a fruit tree such as apple or cherry, which may be used to make furniture fruticose fruticose adjective (of some lichens) with upright branches, like a small shrubby plant
FSA
92
FSA FSA abbr Food Standards Agency FSC FSC abbr Forest Stewardship Certificate
fuel fuel noun a substance that can be burnt to provide heat or power, e.g. wood, gas or oil fuel fuel efficiency efficiency noun the percentage of the heat from burning a fuel that is converted into energy fuel-efficient fuel-efficient adjective referring to an engine or process that uses fuel efficiently fuel-saving fuel-saving adjective using less fuel than others of the same type fuel fuel switching switching noun the act of changing from a fuel with a high sulfur content to one such as natural gas that contains a relatively low amount of sulfur fuelwood fuelwood noun wood that is grown to be used as fuel fugitive fugitive dust dust noun dust caused by an activity that makes it blow in the air, as occurs when tractors are ploughing dry fields fugitive fugitive emissions emissions plural noun polluting substances released into the atmosphere as a result of leaks, evaporation or wind effects full-cost full-cost accounting accounting noun the practice of including the less obvious costs of a product or activity, such as its effects on the environment or health, together with its direct costs when making decisions. Also called green accounting, environmental
accounting
fumarole fumarole noun a small hole in the Earth’s crust near a volcano from which gases, smoke or steam are released fumes fumes plural noun 1. gas or vapour 2. the solid particles produced by a chemical reaction which pass into the air as smoke fumigant fumigant noun a chemical compound that becomes a gas or smoke when heated and is used to kill insects fumigate fumigate verb to kill microorganisms or insects by using a fumigant fumigation fumigation noun 1. the use of a fumigant to kill microorganisms or insects 2. a high amount of air pollution near the ground, caused when the morning sun heats the air and forces polluted air down from higher levels function function noun the use or purpose of something or how it works ć The function of a wing is to provide lift. functional functional food food noun a food designed to be medically beneficial, helping to protect against serious conditions such as diabetes, cancer or heart disease functionality functionality noun the purpose that something is designed to fulfil, or the range of functions that something has
functional functional response response noun the response of a predator to an increase in population of its prey. Either the predator increases its consumption as the population of the prey increases, or it reduces its consumption because it has enough to eat. fundamental fundamental adjective referring to or forming the foundation or base ć the fundamental characteristics of cells fundamental fundamental niche niche noun the full range of physical, chemical and biological factors each species could use if there were no competition from other species. ı interspe-
cific competition
fundamental fundamental particle particle noun same as el-
ementary particle
fungal fungal adjective referring to fungi ć Powdery mildew is a fungal disease. fungi fungi plural of fungus fungicidal fungicidal adjective referring to a substance which kills fungi ć fungicidal properties fungicide fungicide noun a substance used to kill fungi fungoid fungoid adjective referring to something shaped like a fungus ć a fungoid growth on the skin fungus fungus noun an organism that has threadlike cells with walls made of chitin and no green chlorophyll (NOTE: The plural is fun-
gi. For other terms referring to fungi, see
words beginning with myc-.)
COMMENT: Fungi grow in almost every environment and are vital in nutrient cycling as they can digest the cellulose in dead plants. Mushrooms are the spore-producing structures of a large group of otherwise threadlike fungi; many are edible although some are deadly poisonous. Fungi are used in brewing, cheese-making and the production of antibiotics such as penicillin. Some fungi can cause diseases of animals and plants.
funnel funnel cloud cloud noun a rotating, visible extension of a cloud, with the top attached to the cloud but without the bottom tip touching the ground ć When a funnel cloud touches the ground it becomes a tornado. fur fur noun 1. a coat of hair covering an animal ć The rabbit has a thick coat of winter fur. 2. skin and hair removed from an animal, used to make clothes furling furling noun a way of preventing damage to horizontal-axis wind turbines by automatically turning them out of the wind furrow furrow noun a long trench cut in the soil
by a plough FYM FYM abbr farmyard manure fynbos fynbos noun the scrubland typical of the Western Cape area of South America, consisting of low bushes with hard leaves
G
g symbol gram Ga Ga symbol gallium Gaia Gaia hypothesis hypothesis, Gaia theory noun a theory that the biosphere is like a single organism where the living fauna and flora of Earth, its climate and geology, all function together and are interrelated, influencing the development of the whole environment gain gain noun an increase ć a gain in altitude ć There is a gain of heat by the Earth due to solar radiation.
gale gale noun a very strong wind usually blowing from a single direction (NOTE: A
gale is force 8 on the Beaufort scale.)
galena galena noun a shiny blue-grey mineral consisting of lead sulfide. Symbol PbS
(NOTE: It is a source of lead and silver.)
gall gall noun a hard growth on a plant caused by a parasitic insect gallium gallium noun a rare blue-grey metal element used in semiconductors, high-temperature thermometers and alloys (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Ga; the atomic number is 31 and the atomic weight is 69.72.)
gallon gallon noun a unit of liquid volume in the Imperial System, approximately equal to 4.5 litres galvanised galvanised iron iron noun iron that has been coated with zinc to prevent it from rusting
(NOTE: Sheets of galvanised iron are widely used for roofs.)
game game noun animals that are hunted and killed for sport or food or both
game game reserve reserve noun an area of land where wild animals are kept to be hunted and killed for sport
gamete gamete noun a sex cell (NOTE: In animals
the male and female gametes are a spermatozoon and an ovum respectively, in plants they are a pollen grain and an ovule.)
gametocide gametocide noun a drug that kills gametocytes gametocyte gametocyte noun a cell that develops into a gamete gametophyte gametophyte noun the part of a plant’s life cycle when sex organs and sex cells (gametes) are produced
garden garden noun an area of land cultivated as a hobby or for pleasure, rather than to produce an income. ı market garden
garden garden city city noun a large town planned in
the early 20th century on farmland near a
large town, with both public parks and a
private garden for each house. The aim was
to mix the urban and rural environments. ı
garden suburb
gardener gardener noun a person who looks after
a garden
gardening gardening noun the activity of looking
after a garden
garden garden suburb suburb noun an area of a city
planned in the early 20th century to include
large open public spaces and many private
gardens. ı garden city
garrigue garrigue
,
garigue
noun
in
the
Mediterra-
nean area, low-growing vegetation of
drought-resistant prickly shrubs and herbs
gas gas noun 1. a substance that is not a liquid
or a solid, which will completely fill the
container it occupies, and which becomes
liquid when it is cooled ć Heating turned
the liquid into a gas. 2. a substance found
underground, or produced from coal, and
used to cook or heat ć gas central heating
ć We heat our house by gas. 3. US same as
gasoline (NOTE: The UK term is petrol.)
gas gas cleaning cleaning noun the removal of pol-
lutants from gas, especially from emissions
from factories and power stations
gaseous gaseous adjective referring to a substance formed or in the form of gas ˽ water
in the gaseous state steam
gaseous gaseous pollutant pollutant noun a pollutant in
the form of a gas
gas gas exchange exchange noun the transfer of gases
between an organism and its environment
gasoline gasoline noun US a liquid made from pe-
troleum, used as a fuel in internal combus-
tion engines (NOTE: The UK term is petrol.)
gastropod gastropod noun a mollusc that has a
head with eyes, tongue and tentacles, a
large flattened muscular foot and often a
single shell. Class: Gastropoda. (NOTE: Lim-
pets, snails and slugs are gastropods.)
gather gather verb to collect things together ć
The children gathered sea shells on the
beach. ć We gathered information from
several reports and reviews.
gatherers gatherers plural noun people who collect
their food and materials, rather than grow-
ing them
Gause’s principle
94
Gause’s Gause’s principle principle noun a theory that
suggests that two similar and competitive
species cannot occupy the same ecological
niche at the same time
GCV GCV abbr gross calorific value
GE GE abbr genetic engineering
Geiger Geiger counter counter, Geiger-Muller detec-
tor noun an instrument for the detection
and measurement of radiation
gene gene noun a unit of DNA on a chromo-
some which governs the synthesis of one
protein and may combine with other genes
to determine a particular characteristic
gene gene bank bank noun a collection of seeds
from potentially useful wild plants, which
may be used in the future for breeding new
varieties
gene gene flow flow noun a movement of genes
among populations through interbreeding,
dispersal and migration
gene gene frequency frequency noun the ratio of a spe-
cific variant form (allele) of a gene to the
total number of alleles in a specific popula-
tion
gene gene mutation mutation noun a change in a sin-
gle base or base pair in the DNA sequence
of a gene
gene gene pool pool noun the total of all the genes
carried by the individual organisms in a
population
genera genera plural of genus
general circulation model general circulation model
noun a
complex computer simulation of climate
and its various components ć General cir-
culation models are used by researchers
and policy analysts to predict climate
change.
generalist generalist noun 1. a species which can
live in many different environments 2. a
person who studies many different sub-
jects, rather than specialising in one
generate generate verb to make something exist ć
Carbon monoxide is generated by car en-
gines. ć The nuclear reaction generates a
huge amount of heat.
generation generation noun 1. the act or process of
making or creating something ć the gener-
ation of electricity ć the generation of ide-
as 2. a group of individual organisms de-
rived from the same parents
generator generator noun a device that generates
electricity ć The centre has its own inde-
pendent generator, in case of mains power
failure.
generic generic adjective 1. relating to or suitable
for a broad range of things or situations 2.
referring to a genus
generic generic name name noun the scientific name
of a genus. Compare specific name (NOTE:
It is the first name in the binomial classifica-
tion system, the second being the name
which identifies the species. It is written
with a capital letter.)
genet genet noun 1. an individual organism
which is genetically different from others
2. a clone from a genetically distinct organ-
ism
genetic genetic
,
genetical
adjective
referring
to
genes or genetics
genetically genetically modified modified adjective refer-
ring to an organism that has received genet-
ic material from another in a laboratory
procedure, leading to a permanent change
in one or more of its characteristics. Abbr
GM
genetically modified organism genetically modified organism
noun a plant or animal produced by the
technique of genetic modification. Abbr
GMO
genetic genetic bottleneck bottleneck noun a change in
gene frequencies and decline in total genet-
ic variation where there is a sharp decrease
in population numbers
genetic genetic code code noun the information car-
ried by an organism’s DNA which deter-
mines the synthesis of proteins by cells and
which is passed on when the cell divides.
Also called genetic information
genetic genetic damage damage noun damage to an or-
ganism’s genes by external agents such as
radiation or chemicals
genetic genetic diversity diversity noun the richness of
the variety and range of genes
genetic genetic drift drift noun a random change in
gene frequency
genetic genetic engineering engineering noun same as ge-
netic modification. Abbr GE
genetic genetic information information noun same as ge-
netic code
genetic genetic manipulation manipulation noun same as
genetic modification
genetic genetic marker marker noun a known, usually
dominant, gene that is used in the identifi-
cation of genes, chromosomes and charac-
teristics already known to be associated
with that gene
genetic genetic material material noun the parts of a cell
that carry information that can be inherited,
e.g. DNA, genes or chromosomes
genetic genetic materials materials plural noun same as
germplasm
genetic genetic modification modification noun the altera-
tion and recombination of genetic material
under laboratory conditions, resulting in
transgenic organisms. Abbr GM. Also
95
geoscientist
called genetic manipulation, genetic en-
gineering
genetic genetic resources resources plural noun the
genes found in plants and animals that have
value to humans ć Modern plant varieties
have been developed from genetic resourc-
es from South America.
genetics genetics noun the study of the way in
which the characteristics of an organism
are inherited
genetic genetic variation variation noun the inherited
differences between the members of a spe-
cies
-genic -genic suffix produced by or producing
genome genome noun 1. the set of all the genes in
an individual 2. all the genes in a species
genomic genomic adjective relating to a genome
genotype genotype noun 1. the genetic constitu-
tion of an organism. ı phenotype 2. an in-
dividual organism
genotypic genotypic adjective relating to a geno-
type
genus genus noun a group of closely related
species (NOTE: The plural is genera.)
geo- geo- prefix Earth
geochemical geochemical adjective relating to geo-
chemistry
geochemist geochemist noun a scientist who spe-
cialises in the study of geochemistry
geochemistry geochemistry noun the scientific study
of the chemical composition of the Earth
geocline geocline noun the set of changes that take
place in a species across different geo-
graphical environments
geodesy geodesy noun the science of the meas-
urement of the Earth or of very large sec-
tions of it to determine the exact location of
points on the Earth’s surface through pre-
cise observation of distances and angles
geodetic geodetic
,
geodesic
adjective
referring
to
geodesy
geographer geographer noun a person who special-
ises in the study of geography
geographic geographic
,
geographical
adjective
re-
ferring to geography ć a specific geo-
graphical area ć the north geographic pole
geographical geographical barrier barrier noun a natural
feature such as a mountain range or a wide
river that prevents easy movement from
one area to another and separates different
habitats
geographic information system geographic information system
noun a computer system for capturing, ma-
nipulating, analysing and displaying all
forms of geographic information. Abbr GIS
geographic geographic isolation isolation noun the state of
being separated from other members of the
same species by the sea or a range of mountains geography geography noun the scientific study of the Earth’s surface, climate and physical features geological geological adjective referring to geology geological geological aeon aeon noun a unit of geological time, lasting millions of years and containing several eras, during which Earth’s surface and its underlying strata underwent particular changes geological geological epoch epoch noun a unit of geological time, a subdivision of a geological period geological geological era era noun a unit of geological time containing several geological periods geological geological period period noun a unit of geological time, shorter than an era and longer than an epoch geological geological timescale timescale noun the time during which the Earth has existed, i.e. many millions of years geologist geologist noun a scientist who specialises in the study of geology geology geology noun the scientific study of the composition of the Earth’s surface and its underlying strata geomagnetic geomagnetic adjective referring to the Earth’s magnetic field geomagnetic geomagnetic pole pole noun same as magnetic pole
geomagnetism geomagnetism noun the study of the Earth’s magnetic field geomorphology geomorphology noun the study of the physical features of the Earth’s surface, their development and how they are related to the core beneath geophone geophone noun a sensitive device which records sounds of seismic movements below the Earth’s surface geophysicist geophysicist noun a scientist who specialises in the study of geophysics geophysics geophysics noun the scientific study of the physical properties of the Earth geophyte geophyte noun a perennial herbaceous plant that lives through the winter as an underground structure such as a bulb or corm geopolitics geopolitics noun the influence of geographical factors on the politics of a country geoscience geoscience noun a science concerned with the physical aspects of the Earth, e.g. geochemistry, geodesy, geography, geology, geomorphology, geophysics or meteorology geoscientist geoscientist noun a person who specialises in one or several of the geosciences
geosphere
96
geosphere geosphere noun the central part of the Earth, which contains no living organisms geostrophic geostrophic wind wind noun a wind which blows horizontally along the isobars, across the surface of the Earth geosyncline geosyncline noun a long fold in the Earth’s crust, forming a basin filled with a sediment of volcanic rocks geothermal geothermal adjective referring to heat from the interior of the Earth geothermal geothermal deposit deposit noun the heat-producing matter inside the Earth geothermal geothermal energy energy noun the energy or electricity generated from the heat inside the Earth, e.g. in hot springs. Also called
geothermal power
COMMENT: Apart from channelling water from hot springs, geothermal energy can also be created by pumping cold water into deep holes in the ground at points where hot rocks lie close to the surface. The water is heated and becomes steam which returns to the surface and is used for domestic heating.
geothermally geothermally adverb from geothermal sources ć Geothermally heated water can be used for domestic heating.
geothermal geothermal power power noun same as geo-
thermal energy
geotropism geotropism noun the growth or movement of a plant in response to gravity
(NOTE: Stems and other parts that grow upwards against gravity show negative geot-
ropism. The downwards growth of roots is positive geotropism.)
germ germ noun 1. a microorganism that causes a disease, e.g. a virus or bacterium (informal) 2. a part of an organism that develops into a new organism germ germ cell cell noun a cell which is capable of developing into a spermatozoon or ovum germicide germicide adjective, noun a substance that can kill germs germinate germinate verb (of a seed or spore) to start to grow germination germination noun the process of a seed or spore developing into a plant germplasm germplasm noun the genetic material that is transmitted from one generation of an organism to another geyser geyser noun a natural feature occurring when hot water and steam rise out of a hole in the ground at regular intervals GHG GHG abbr greenhouse gas gibberellin gibberellin noun a plant hormone that stimulates growth and seed germination giga- giga- prefix one thousand million, or 109. Symbol G
gigawatt gigawatt noun a unit of one thousand million watts ć Air-conditioning accounts for one-third of the 500 gigawatt peak demand in the USA. Abbr GW
gigawatt-hour gigawatt-hour noun a unit of one thousand million watts of electricity used for one hour. Abbr GWh
gillnet gillnet noun a type of net which is attached to the seabed, in which fish are caught by their gills
gills gills plural noun 1. the breathing apparatus of fish and other animals living in water, consisting of a series of layers of tissue which extract oxygen from water as it passes over them 2. a series of thin structures on the underside of the cap of a fungus, carrying the spores
GIS GIS abbr geographic information system
glabrous glabrous adjective smooth and without hairs
glacial glacial adjective referring to a glacier ć The rocks are marked by glacial action.
glacial glacial drift drift noun the material left behind by a glacier, e.g. sand, soil or gravel
glaciation glaciation noun 1. the formation of glaciers 2. the formation of ice crystals at the top of a rain cloud
glacier glacier noun 1. a mass of ice moving slowly across land, like a frozen river 2. a large amount of stationary ice covering land in the Arctic regions
COMMENT: During the Ice Ages, glaciers covered large parts of the northern hemisphere, depositing sand in the form of glacial moraines and boulder clay. Glaciers are still found in the highest mountain areas and in the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
glaciologist glaciologist noun a scientist who specialises in the study of glaciers
glaciology glaciology noun the study of glaciers
gland gland noun (in animals and plants) a cell or group of cells that secrete a specific substance
glandular glandular adjective referring to glands
glass glass noun a substance made from sand and soda or lime, usually transparent and used for making windows, bottles and other objects
glasshouse glasshouse noun a large structure made of glass inside which plants are grown, especially commercially or for scientific purposes
glauconite glauconite noun a green mineral composed of iron, potassium, aluminium and magnesium
glaucous glaucous adjective blue-green, or with a waxy blue-green covering
97
graft
glen glen noun (in Scotland ) a long narrow
mountain valley with a stream running
along it
gley gley noun a thick rich soil found in water-
logged ground
gleyed gleyed soil soil noun soil which is water-
logged
gleying gleying noun a set of properties of soil
which indicate poor drainage and lack of
oxygen (NOTE: The signs are a blue-grey
colour, rusty patches and standing surface
water.)
global global adjective referring to the whole
Earth ć global biodiversity ć Global tem-
peratures will rise over the next fifty years.
global global distillation distillation noun the movement
of persistent organic pollutants from warm
tropical and subtropical regions to cooler
higher latitudes via evaporation and con-
densation
global global ecology ecology noun the study of the re-
lationship of organisms to each other and to
their environment throughout the world
globalisation globalisation noun the development of a
similar culture and economy across the
whole world as a result of technological ad-
vances in communications
global positioning system global positioning system
noun an
extremely accurate method of locating a
position using satellite signals. Abbr GPS
global global solar radiation solar radiation noun the rays
emitted by the Sun which fall on the Earth.
Abbr GSR
global global stability stability noun the ability of an
ecological or taxonomic unit to be unaffect-
ed by large disturbances
global global temperature temperature noun the tempera-
ture over the Earth as a whole
global global warming warming noun a gradual rise in
temperature over the whole of the Earth’s
surface, caused by the greenhouse effect
global warming potential global warming potential
noun a con-
cept that takes into account the differing
times that gases remain in the atmosphere,
in order to find out the potential climate ef-
fects of equal emissions of each of the
greenhouse gases. Abbr GWP
globe globe noun 1. a spherical object 2. the
Earth
globule globule noun a round drop of liquid
gloom gloom noun 1. low light intensity 2. dark
and miserable weather
glowworm glowworm noun a beetle of which the fe-
males and larvae produce a greenish light
glucose glucose noun a simple sugar found in
some fruit
glufosinate ammonium glufosinate ammonium
noun a sys-
temic herbicide acting against a wide range
of species. Some crops have been geneti-
cally modified to tolerate it.
glume glume noun one of a pair of dry leaves
(bracts) that occur at the base of a spikelet
in grasses and cereals or at the base of an
inflorescence in reeds
gluten gluten noun a protein found in some cere-
als which makes a sticky paste when water
is added (NOTE: The gluten content of flour
affects the quality of the bread made from
it.)
glycogen glycogen noun a type of starch that is
converted from glucose by the action of in-
sulin and stored in the liver as a source of
energy
glycoprotein glycoprotein noun a protein that is
linked to a carbohydrate
glyphosate glyphosate noun a systemic herbicide
acting against a wide range of species.
Some crops have been genetically modified
to tolerate it.
GM GM abbr 1. genetically modified 2. genetic
modification
GMO GMO abbr genetically modified organism
gneiss gneiss noun a rough rock with layers of
different minerals
goat goat noun a small animal with horns, kept
for its milk and meat
gold gold noun a heavy yellow metal that is rel-
atively rare. It is used to make jewellery and
precious objects. (NOTE: The chemical sym-
bol is Au; the atomic number is 79 and the
atomic weight is 196.97.)
gold gold mine mine noun a hole dug in the ground
to extract gold
gorge gorge noun a narrow valley with steep
sides
government government agency agency, government
body noun an organisation set up by a gov-
ernment to deal with a specific area of spe-
cialist responsibility
GPS GPS abbr global positioning system
graben graben noun a type of rift valley, formed
where land between fault lines has sunk
grab grab sample sample noun a single sample of
soil or water taken without considering fac-
tors such as time or flow
gradient gradient noun 1. the angle of a slope ć
Plant roots cannot retain the soil on very
steep gradients. 2. the rate of increase or
decrease of a measurement
graft graft noun a piece of plant or animal tissue
transferred onto another plant or animal
and growing there í verb to transfer a piece
of tissue from one plant or animal to anoth-
er
grain
98
grain grain noun 1. the seed (technically a fruit) of a cereal crop such as wheat or maize 2. a cereal crop such as wheat of which the seeds are dried and eaten ć grain farmers 3. the size of crystals in a rock or the size of particles of sand grain grain crop crop noun a cereal crop such as wheat of which the seeds are dried and eaten grain grain reserves reserves plural noun the amount of cereal grain held in a store by a country which is estimated to be above the country’s requirements for one year gram gram noun 1. a metric measure of weight equal to one thousandth of a kilogram. Abbr g 2. same as chickpea -gram -gram suffix a record of information in the form of a picture Gramineae Gramineae plural noun former name for
Poaceae
Gram’s Gram’s stain stain, Gram’s method noun a method of staining bacteria that allows two main types to be distinguished granite granite noun a hard grey rock with pieces of quartz, feldspar and other minerals in it grant grant noun an amount of money given to support a specific person or project granular granular adjective in the form of granules granule granule noun 1. a small particle ć granules of sand 2. a small artificially made particle of a substance ć Fertilisers are produced in granule form, which is easier to
handle and distribute than powder. graph graph noun a diagram that shows a relationship between two sets of numbers as a series of points often joined by a line ć The graph shows the relationship between sul-
fur in the atmosphere and lichen numbers. -graph -graph suffix a machine which records by drawing -grapher -grapher suffix 1. a person skilled in a subject 2. a technician who operates a machine which records information graphite graphite noun a mineral form of carbon occurring naturally as crystals or as a soft black deposit (NOTE: It is used as a moderator in some types of nuclear reactor and is mixed with clay to make lead pencils.) -graphy -graphy suffix the process of making an image grass grass noun a monocotyledonous plant in the Poaceae family. There are many genera. (NOTE: Grasses include cereals and are important as food for herbivores and humans.)
grassland grassland noun land covered mainly by grasses. ı acid grassland, calcareous grassland í plural noun grasslands wide
areas of land covered mainly by grasses, e.g. the prairies of North America and the pampas of South America
gravel gravel noun sand and small pebbles occurring as deposits (NOTE: On the Went-
worth-Udden scale, gravel has a diameter of 2–4 millimetres.)
graveyard graveyard noun a place where nuclear waste is buried, or where unwanted machines or vehicles are left (informal)
gravitational gravitational adjective referring to gravity
gravity gravity noun a natural force of attraction which pulls bodies towards each other and which pulls objects on the Earth towards its centre ć In order for a bird to fly, lift must overcome gravity. Also called force of
gravity
gray gray noun an SI unit of measurement of absorbed radiation equal to 100 rads. Symbol Gy
graze graze verb (of animals) to feed on lowgrowing plants
grazer grazer noun a grazing animal
grazer grazer system system noun the section of a community where animals feed on plants
grazier grazier noun a farmer who looks after grazing animals
grazing grazing noun 1. the action of animals feeding on growing grass, legumes or other plants ć Spine on plants may be a protection against grazing. 2. the action of animals eating plankton or other very small animals 3. an area of land covered with low-growing plants suitable for animals to feed on ć There is good grazing on the mountain pastures.
grazing grazing food chain food chain noun a cycle in which vegetation is eaten by animals, digested, then passed into the soil as dung and so taken up again by plants which are eaten by animals
Great Great Barrier Reef Barrier Reef noun a coral reef about 200km long that lies parallel to the coast of north-east Australia
green green adjective 1. referring to a colour like that of grass ć The green colour in plants is provided by chlorophyll. 2. referring to an interest in ecological and environmental problems ć green policies í noun 1. a colour like that of grass 2. also Green a person with a concern for ecological and environmental problems
green green accounting accounting noun same as full-
cost accounting
green green area index area index noun the total area of leaves, green fruits and green stems per unit
99
greenwash
of ground area covered by a plant. Abbr
GAI
green green audit audit noun same as environmen-
tal audit
Green Green Belt Belt noun an area of agricultural land, woodland or parkland which surrounds an urban area green green burial burial noun an act of burial designed to have low environmental impact, typically placing a corpse that has not been embalmed in a biodegradable coffin or bag
and burying it in a grave marked with a sapling. ı woodland burial green green certificate certificate noun a official record confirming that a specific percentage of electricity has been produced from renewa-
ble energy sources green green chemistry chemistry noun the development of chemical products that do not cause pollution or environmental and human health
risks green green consumerism consumerism noun a movement to encourage people to buy food and
other products such as organic foods or lead-free petrol which are regarded as envi-
ronmentally good green green electricity electricity noun same as green tariff electricity
greenfield greenfield site site noun a place in the countryside, not previously built on, that is cho-
sen as the site for a new housing development or factory ć Urban fringe sites are
less attractive to developers than greenfield sites. Compare brownfield site greenhouse greenhouse noun a structure made of glass inside which plants are grown greenhouse greenhouse effect effect noun the effect produced by the accumulation of carbon dioxide crystals and water vapour in the upper
atmosphere, which insulates the Earth and raises the atmospheric temperature by pre-
venting heat loss
COMMENT: Carbon dioxide particles allow solar radiation to pass through and reach the Earth, but prevent heat from radiating back into the atmosphere. This results in a rise in the Earth’s atmospheric temperature, as if the atmosphere were a greenhouse protecting the Earth. Even a small rise of less than 1°C in the atmospheric temperature could have serious effects on the climate of the Earth as a whole. The polar ice caps would melt, causing sea levels to rise everywhere with consequent flooding. Temperate areas in Asia and America would experience hotter and drier conditions, causing crop failures. Carbon dioxide is largely formed from burning fossil fuels. Other gases contribute to the greenhouse effect, for instance methane is increasingly produced by rotting vegeta-
tion in swamps, from paddy fields, from termites’ excreta and even from the stomachs of cows. Chlorofluorocarbons also help create the greenhouse effect.
greenhouse greenhouse gas gas noun a gas that occurs naturally in the atmosphere or is produced by burning fossil fuels and rises into the atmosphere, forming a barrier which prevents heat loss ć planning to introduce a tax to inhibit greenhouse gas emissions.
Abbr GHG
COMMENT: The six greenhouse gases with a direct effect are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide (all of which occur naturally), hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride. Indirect greenhouses gases are nitrogen oxides, which produce ozone during their breakdown in the atmosphere, carbon monoxide and non-methane volatile compounds.
greening greening noun 1. the process of planting trees and other vegetation in an area 2. the process of becoming more aware, or increasing others’ awareness, of the environment and environmental issues green green manure manure noun fast-growing green vegetation such as mustard or rape which is grown and ploughed into the soil to rot and act as manure Green Green Party Party noun a political party which is mainly concerned with environmental issues Greenpeace Greenpeace noun an international pressure group that takes action to publicise environmental issues green green petrol petrol noun a type of petrol containing fewer pollutants than ordinary petrol green green politics politics noun the kind of political proposals put forward by environmentalists green green pricing pricing noun the choice offered to customers of energy companies to pay extra on their bills to cover the costs of researching and using renewable resources Green Green Revolution Revolution noun the development in the 1960s of new forms of widely grown cereal plants such as wheat and rice, which gave high yields and increased food production especially in tropical countries green green space space noun an area of land which has not been built on, containing grass, plants and trees greenstrip greenstrip noun a firebreak on open grassland, planted with vegetation that does not burn easily green tariff green tariff electricity electricity noun electricity produced from renewable resources such as wind. Also called green electricity greenwash greenwash noun a public relations initiative such as advertising or public consulta-
green waste
100
tion, that is designed to show the concern of
a business or organisation for the environ-
mental impact of its activities but which is
often regarded as propaganda
green green waste waste noun leaves, grass cuttings
and other plant material that is to be dis-
posed of
greenway greenway noun 1. a grass track 2. a sys-
tem of linked open spaces such as parks and
privately owned natural areas, often in an
urban area
green green wood wood noun new shoots on a tree,
which have not ripened fully
grey grey water water, greywater noun the relative-
ly clean waste water from sinks, baths, and
kitchen appliances
grid grid noun a pattern of equally spaced ver-
tical and horizontal lines
grid grid reference reference noun a set of numbers
which refer to a point on a map, used for ac-
curate location of a place
grind grind verb to reduce a substance to fine
particles by crushing
grinder grinder noun a device or machine which
reduces a substance to fine particles by
crushing
grinding grinding noun the process of reducing of
a substance to fine particles by crushing
grit grit noun 1. sharp-grained sand 2. a tiny
solid particle in the air, larger than dust
groove groove noun a long shallow depression in
a surface
gross gross calorific value calorific value noun the total
number of calories which a specific amount
of a substance contains. Abbr GCV
gross primary production gross primary production
noun the
rate at which a biomass assimilates organic
matter
gross primary productivity gross primary productivity
noun the
rate at which producers in an ecosystem
capture and store chemical energy as bio-
mass. ı net primary productivity
ground ground noun 1. the solid surface of the
Earth 2. a surface layer of soil or earth ć
stony ground 3. an area of land ć a stretch
of open ground before you reach the trees
ground ground clearance clearance noun the removal of
trees and undergrowth in preparation for an
activity such as ploughing or building
ground ground cover cover noun plants that grow
densely close to the ground, either in natu-
ral conditions or planted to prevent soil ero-
sion or the spread of weeds
ground-level concentration ground-level concentration
noun the
amount of a pollutant measured at the
height of the ground, just above it or just
below it
ground-nesting ground-nesting adjective (of birds)
building nests on the ground
ground ground pollution pollution noun the presence of
unusually high concentrations of harmful
substances in the soil
ground source heat pump ground source heat pump
noun a
heat pump used to extract heat from the
ground at several metres deep and transfer
it to a building where heat is required
ground ground water water noun water that stays in
the top layers of soil or in porous rocks and
can collect pollution. Compare surface
water
groundwater groundwater recharge recharge noun the proc-
ess by which water from above the surface
is added to the saturated zone of an aquifer,
either directly or indirectly
group group noun a number of individual items
or people brought together í verb to bring
several things together
grove grove noun a small group of trees
grow grow verb 1. (of plants) to exist and devel-
op well ć Bananas grow only in warm hu-
mid conditions. 2. (of plants and animals)
to increase in size ć The tree grows slowly.
ć A sunflower can grow 3 cm in one day. 3.
to cultivate plants ć Farmers here grow two
crops in a year. ć He grows peas for the lo-
cal canning factory. 4. to become ć It’s
growing colder at night now. ć She grew
weak with hunger.
growth growth noun 1. an increase in size ć the
growth in the population since 1960 ć The
disease stunts the conifers’ growth. 2. the
amount by which something increases in
size ć The rings show the annual growth of
the tree.
growth growth hormone hormone noun a natural or arti-
ficial chemical that makes an organism
grow
growth growth rate rate noun the amount or speed of
increase in size
growth growth ring ring noun same as annual ring
groyne groyne noun a structure that is built out
from the shore into the sea to help hold
back material moving along the shoreline
by the force of waves and so prevent ero-
sion
grub grub noun a small caterpillar or larva í verb ˽ to grub up to dig up a plant with its
roots ć Miles of hedgerows have been
grubbed up to make larger fields.
GSR GSR abbr global solar radiation
guano guano noun a mass of accumulated bird
droppings, found especially on small is-
lands and used as organic fertiliser
guard guard cell cell noun either of a pair of cells
that border a leaf pore and control its size
101
gyre
(NOTE: The guard cells and pore are called a stoma, and are most common on the underside of leaves.)
guerrilla guerrilla noun a plant species that invades a community as isolated individuals. Compare phalanx
guideline guideline noun a piece of advice that suggests the best way for something to be done ć guidelines for the conduct of experiments
guild guild noun a group of plants or animals of different species which live in the same type of environment
gulf gulf noun a very large area of sea enclosed partly by land
Gulf Gulf Stream Stream noun a current of warm water in the Atlantic Ocean, which flows north along the east coast of the USA, then crosses the Atlantic to northern Europe, passing close to the west coast of Scotland and giving the British Isles and European coast a mild winter climate compared with countries at the same latitude such as eastern Canada
gulfweed gulfweed noun floating seaweed that grows in the Sargasso Sea
gull gull noun a seabird, with a large body, usually white or grey feathers, a hooked beak and webbed feet. There are several different species.
gully gully noun 1. a deep channel formed by
soil erosion and unable to be filled in by
cultivation 2. a small channel for water, e.g.
an artificial channel dug at the edge of a
field or a natural channel in rock
gully gully cleaning cleaning noun the clearance of
rubbish from drainage gullies at the edge of
roads
gum gum noun a liquid substance in the trunks
and branches of some trees, which hardens
on contact with air. It is used in confection-
ery, pharmacy and stationery.
gust gust noun a strong sudden rush of wind ć
Strong gusts blew dust off the fields into the
air.
gusty gusty adjective referring to wind blowing
in sudden strong bursts
GW GW
,
gW
abbr
gigawatt
GWh GWh abbr gigawatt-hour
GWP GWP abbr global warming potential
Gy Gy abbr gray
gymnosperm gymnosperm noun a seed-bearing plant
in which the seeds are carried naked on the
scales of a cone rather than being inside a
fruit, e.g. a conifer, cycad or ginkgo. ı an-
giosperm
gynoecium gynoecium noun the female sex organs
(carpels) of a plant
gyre gyre noun a circular or spiral motion of
ocean water
H
ha ha symbol hectare
haar haar noun a sea mist occurring during the summer in the north of the British Isles
habit habit noun the characteristic way in which a specific plant grows ć a bush with an erect habit ć a plant with a creeping habit
habitat habitat noun the type of environment in which a specific organism lives
habitat habitat action plan action plan noun a detailed description of a specific habitat together with the detailed actions and targets proposed for conserving it. Abbr HAP
habitat habitat diversity diversity noun a variety of habitats within an area. The larger the area, the more diverse the habitats. habitat habitat island island noun an area suitable for a species that is surrounded by other less suitable areas such as urban areas
habitat habitat loss loss noun a permanent disappearance of or decrease in the amount of suitable environment available to an organism. Also called habitat reduction
habitat habitat management management noun same as
nature management
habitat habitat reduction reduction noun same as habitat
loss
habitat habitat restoration restoration noun activity carried out to return an area to a former more favourable condition for wildlife
haboob haboob noun a violent dust storm or sand storm of a type found in North Africa, especially in Sudan (NOTE: Such dust storms
are associated with cumulonimbus clouds.)
HACCP HACCP noun a process for identifying and controlling hazards within a process, e.g. in the food industry. Full form Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Points
hadal hadal zone zone noun a zone of the ocean at depths greater than the abyssal zone, i.e. below 6000m
haematite haematite noun iron oxide, the most common form of iron ore. Formula: Fe2O3. hail hail noun water falling from clouds in the form of small round pieces of ice í verb to fall as small pieces of ice
hailstone hailstone noun a piece of ice which falls from clouds like rain
hailstorm hailstorm noun a storm in which the precipitation is hail and not rain
hair hair noun 1. a slender outgrowth on the
surface of a plant or animal 2. a mass of
outgrowths on an animal’s skin or a per-
son’s head or body
half-hardy half-hardy adjective referring to a plant
that is able to tolerate cold weather down to
about 5C. ı hardy
half-life half-life
,
half-life
period
noun
1.
the
time
taken for half the atoms in a radioactive iso-
tope to decay. Also called half-value peri-
od 2. the time required for an organism to
eliminate naturally half the amount of a
substance that has entered its body
halo- halo- prefix salt
halobiotic halobiotic adjective referring to organ-
isms which live in salt water
halocarbon halocarbon noun a chemical consisting
of carbon, sometimes hydrogen, and a hal-
ogen such as chlorine, fluorine, bromine or
iodine. Also called halogenated carbon
halocline halocline noun a salinity gradient where
two masses of water such as fresh water
and the sea meet
halogen halogen noun a non-metallic element be-
longing to a series of chemically related
non-metallic elements that includes fluo-
rine, chlorine, iodine, bromine and astatine
halogenated halogenated adjective referring to a
chemical compound that contains one of
the halogens
halogenated halogenated carbon carbon noun same as
halocarbon
halogen halogen lamp lamp noun a light bulb contain-
ing a halogen that runs at a much higher
temperature than a conventional incandes-
cent lamp
halogenous halogenous adjective referring to or
containing a halogen
halomorphic halomorphic soil soil noun soil that con-
tains large amounts of salt
halon halon noun a chemical compound that
contains bromine and resembles a chlo-
rofluorocarbon
halophile halophile noun a species that can live in
salty conditions
halophyte halophyte noun a plant that is able to
grow in salty soil, as in estuaries
hands-on hands-on adjective referring to being ac-
tively involved in something ć hands-on
experience
103
Health and Safety Executive
hanging hanging valley valley noun a valley high above the side of another valley, formed when the main valley was cut deeper by a larger glacier, leaving the smaller valley to join it at a cliff (NOTE: This is one of the
ways in which waterfalls are formed.)
HAP HAP abbr Habitat Action Plan hard hard adjective (of water ) containing calcium and magnesium in solution harden harden verb to make something hard, or become hard ˽ to harden off to make plants become gradually more used to cold ć After seedlings have been grown in the greenhouse, they need to be hardened off before planting outside in the open ground. hardness hardness noun 1. an indication of the percentage of calcium in water 2. a measurement of how hard a mineral is hardpan hardpan noun a hard soil surface, usually formed of dried clay hardwood hardwood noun 1. a slow-growing broad-leaved tree, e.g. oak, teak or mahogany 2. the fine-grained, dense wood produced by a tree such as oak, teak or mahogany. Compare softwood
hardy hardy adjective referring to a plant able to tolerate cold weather, especially below 5 °C. ı half-hardy harmattan harmattan noun a hot dry winter wind that blows from the northeast and causes dust storms in the Sahara harness harness verb to control a natural phenomenon and make it produce energy ć A tidal power station harnesses the power of the tides. harvest harvest noun 1. the time when a crop is gathered 2. a crop that is gathered í verb 1. to gather a crop that is ripe ć They are harvesting the rice crop. 2. to gather a natural resource hatch hatch verb (of an animal) to break out of an egg
hatchery hatchery noun a place where eggs are kept warm artificially until the animal inside becomes mature enough to break out hay hay noun grass mowed and dried before it has flowered, used for feeding animals hay hay fever fever noun same as pollinosis
haymaking haymaking noun the cutting of grass in fields to make hay hazard hazard noun something with the potential to cause injury, damage or loss ć a fire hazard ć a health hazard ć Thunderclouds may pose hazards to aircraft. Compare risk
hazard hazard assessment assessment noun a formal assessment of the potential of something to harm humans or the environment
hazardous hazardous adjective referring to the dan-
ger that something might present ć hazard-
ous chemicals ć Climbing mountains can
be hazardous.
hazardous hazardous substance substance noun a sub-
stance that is toxic, persistent and likely to
accumulate in organisms
hazardous hazardous waste waste noun a by-product of
manufacturing processes or nuclear
processing that is toxic and can damage
people’s health or the environment if not
treated correctly
hazard hazard profile profile noun data on the physical
and chemical characteristics, toxicity, bio-
accumulation, persistence and mobility in
environmental media and other properties
of a chemical, used together with informa-
tion on exposure to assess risk
haze haze noun dust or smoke in the atmos-
phere ć Haze can seriously reduce air-to-
ground visibility.
HD HD polythene polythene noun same as high-den-
sity polythene
He He symbol helium
head head noun 1. a point where a river starts to
flow 2. pressure shown as the vertical dis-
tance that water falls from the inlet of the
collection pipe to the water turbine in a hy-
droelectric power system 3. pressure shown
as the vertical distance of a water tank
above the taps in a house í verb 1. to be in
charge of an organisation or group of peo-
ple 2. to move or move something in a par-
ticular direction
headland headland noun 1. a high mass of land
protruding into the sea 2. an uncultivated
area of soil at the edge of a field, where a
tractor turns when ploughing. ı conserva-
tion headland
headstream headstream noun a stream that flows
into a river near the river’s source
headwaters headwaters plural noun the area in
which tributary streams feed into a river
near the river’s source
health health noun the state of a plant, animal or
person being well and free from disease ć
Fumes from the factory were a danger to
public health. ı plant health
Health and Safety at Work Act Health and Safety at Work Act
noun
an Act of Parliament which indicates how
the health of workers should be protected
by the companies they work for
Health and Safety Executive Health and Safety Executive
noun a
UK government organisation responsible
for checking people’s working environ-
ment. Abbr HSE
health assessment
104
health health assessment assessment noun an assess-
ment of the dangers to the health of the population involved in a contaminated area
health health food food noun a food that is regarded as contributing to good health, especially
one with no artificial additives (NOTE: Health foods include natural cereals, dried
fruit and nuts.)
health health hazard hazard noun something that is
likely to harm someone’s health
health risk assessment health risk assessment
noun a pre-
diction of the potential health effects of being exposed to hazardous substances
healthy healthy adjective 1. not ill, or not showing signs of diseases or disorders 2. likely to keep or make you well ć a healthy diet
heart heart noun the compact central part of a vegetable such as lettuce, cabbage or cel-
ery, where new leaves or stalks form
heartwood heartwood noun the hard dead wood in
the centre of a tree trunk which helps support the tree. Compare sapwood. Also
called duramen
heat heat noun 1. energy that is moving from a
source to another point ć The heat of the Sun made the surface of the road melt. 2.
the period when a female animal will allow
mating ˽ an animal on heat a female ani-
mal in the period when she will accept a
mate í verb to make something hot ć The solution should be heated to 25 °C.
heat heat accumulator accumulator noun a vessel for storing hot liquid, allowing even heat distribution or distribution over a period of time.
Also called thermal accumulator
heat heat discharge discharge noun a release of waste
heat into the atmosphere, especially from an industrial process. Also called thermal
discharge
heat heat engine engine noun a phenomenon that
produces the Earth’s climatic pattern, caused by the difference in temperature be-
tween the hot equatorial zone and the cold polar regions, making warm water and air from the tropics move towards the poles
heat heat gain gain noun same as energy gain
heath heath noun an area of acid soil where low shrubs such as heather and gorse grow and which are treeless as a result of grazing by
animals
COMMENT: Lowland heaths are found on dry sandy soils or gravel below 300 m. Upland heaths are found on mineral soils or shallow peat and may be dry or wet, with
mosses growing in wetter conditions.
heathland heathland noun a wide area of heath
heating heating noun 1. the process of making something hot 2. a system that supplies heat heat heat island island noun an increase in temperature experienced in the centre of a large urban area, caused by the release of heat from buildings heat-proof heat-proof adjective referring to a material or something made from a material through which heat cannot pass heat heat reclamation reclamation, heat recovery noun the process of collecting heat from substances heated during a process and using it to heat further substances, so as to avoid heat loss heat heat storage storage noun the storage of heat produced during a period of low consumption until a peak period when it is needed. Also called thermal storage heavy heavy adjective 1. weighing a lot 2. severe, difficult or unpleasant 3. involving a lot of effort heavy heavy industry industry noun an industry that extracts raw materials such as coal hectare hectare noun an area of land measuring 100 by 100 metres, i.e. 10 000 square metres or 2.47 acres. Symbol ha hedge hedge noun a row of bushes planted and regularly cut to provide a barrier around a field or garden hedgebank hedgebank noun a raised strip of earth on which a hedge is planted ć primroses
growing on the hedgebank hedgelaying hedgelaying noun a traditional method of cultivating hedges, where tall saplings are cut through halfway and then bent over so that they lie horizontally and make a thick barrier hedgerow hedgerow noun a line of bushes forming a hedge hedging hedging noun the skill of cultivating hedges helio- helio- prefix Sun heliophyte heliophyte noun a plant that is adapted to grow in strong light heliotropic heliotropic adjective referring to a plant that grows or turns towards a light source helium helium noun a light inert gas, used in balloons and as a coolant in some types of nuclear reactor (NOTE: The chemical symbol is He; the atomic number is 2 and the atomic
weight is 4.00.)
helophyte helophyte noun a plant that typically grows in marshy or lake-edge environments hemisphere hemisphere noun 1. one half of a sphere 2. one half of the Earth north or south of the equator ć the northern hemisphere
105
hibernate
hemlock hemlock noun 1. a North American softwood tree. Genus: Tsuga. 2. a poisonous plant. Latin name: Conium maculatum.
herb herb noun 1. a plant that is used to add flavour in cooking 2. a plant that has medicinal properties 3. a non-woody flowering plant that has no perennial stem above the ground in winter
herb- herb- prefix referring to plants or vegetation
herbaceous herbaceous adjective referring to plants with soft non-woody tissue that die down above ground to survive through the winter
herbage herbage noun the green plants, especially grass, eaten by grazing animals
herbal herbal adjective referring to plants
herbalism herbalism noun the treatment of illnesses or disorders by the use of herbs or by medicines extracted from herbs
herbarium herbarium noun a collection of preserved plant or fungal specimens, especially one that is used for scientific study and classification
herbicide herbicide noun a chemical that kills plants, especially used to control weeds
herbivore herbivore noun an animal that feeds only on plants. ı carnivore, detritivore, frugi-
vore, omnivore
herbivorous herbivorous adjective referring to an animal that feeds only on plants
herd herd noun a group of herbivorous animals that live together ć a herd of cows (NOTE:
The word herd is usually used for cattle; for sheep, goats, and birds such as hens or geese, the word to use is flock.) í verb 1. to tend a herd of animals 2. to gather animals together ć herding the cows into the yard
herdsman herdsman noun someone who looks after a herd of animals
hereditary hereditary adjective referring to a genetically controlled characteristic that is passed from parent to offspring
hereditary hereditary factor factor noun a genetically controlled characteristic that is passed from parent to offspring
heredity heredity noun the transfer of genetically controlled characteristics from parent to offspring
heritable heritable adjective able to be passed from parent to offspring
heritage heritage noun the environment, including the countryside, biodiversity of species, and historic buildings and sites, seen as something to be passed on in good condition to future generations
heritage heritage coast coast noun an area of coastline
that is protected because of its special sce-
nic or environmental value
hermaphrodite hermaphrodite noun an animal, plant or
flower that has both male and female sexual
organs
hertz hertz noun the SI unit of frequency. Sym-
bol Hz (NOTE: One hertz is equal to one cy-
cle per second.)
hetero- hetero- prefix different. Compare homo-
heterogeneous heterogeneous adjective having differ-
ent characteristics or qualities (NOTE: Do
not confuse with heterogenous.)
heterogenous heterogenous adjective coming from a
different source (NOTE: Do not confuse with
heterogeneous.)
heterologous heterologous adjective differing in
structural features or origin
heterophyte heterophyte noun 1. a plant that grows
in a wide range of habitats 2. a plant that
lacks chlorophyll and is parasitic
heterosis heterosis noun an increase in size or rate
of growth, fertility or resistance to disease
found in offspring of a cross between or-
ganisms with different genotypes. Also
called hybrid vigour. Compare inbreed-
ing depression
heterotroph heterotroph noun an organism that re-
quires carbon in organic form and cannot
manufacture it (NOTE: Animals, fungi and
some algae and bacteria are heterotrophs.)
heterotrophic heterotrophic adjective referring to a
heterotroph ć a heterotrophic organism
heterozygosity heterozygosity noun the state of being
heterozygous
heterozygous heterozygous adjective relating to a cell
or organism that has two or more variant
forms (alleles) of at least one of its genes
(NOTE: The offspring of such an organism
may differ with regard to the characteristics
determined by the gene or genes involved,
depending on which version of the gene
they inherit.)
hexachlorocyclohexane hexachlorocyclohexane
noun same
as lindane
HFC HFC abbr hydrofluorocarbon
Hg Hg symbol mercury
HGCA HGCA noun an organisation established to
improve the production and marketing of
UK cereal crops and oilseeds, and to pro-
mote research. Full form Home-Grown
Cereals Authority
hibernaculum hibernaculum noun a place where an
animal hibernates, e.g. a nest (NOTE: The
plural is hibernacula.)
hibernate hibernate verb (of an animal) to survive
the cold winter months by a big reduction
hibernation
106
in metabolic rate and activity, and by using
up stored body fat for food
hibernation hibernation noun a big reduction in met-
abolic rate and activity, and the using up of
stored body fat to survive the cold winter
months. Compare aestivation
hickory hickory noun a North American hard-
wood tree. Genus: Carya.
hide hide noun 1. the skin of a large animal 2.
a shelter where humans can stay hidden
while watching birds or animals
high high adjective 1. reaching far from ground
level ć Altocumulus clouds form at higher
levels than cumulus. 2. of greater than aver-
age amount ć The sample gave a high
reading of radioactivity. ć The soil is red
and high in aluminium and iron oxide. í
noun an area of high atmospheric pressure
high-density high-density adjective 1. having a large
mass per unit of volume 2. having a lot of
people or organisms living closely together
ć high-density housing
high-density polythene high-density polythene
noun very
thick strong plastic. Abbr HD polythene
high-energy high-energy food food noun a kind of food
which gives a lot of energy when broken
down by the digestive system, e.g. fats or
carbohydrates
higher higher plants plants plural noun plants that
have a vascular system. Compare lower
plants
high-grade high-grade adjective of very high quality
highland highland noun an area of high land or
mountains. Opposite lowland í adjective
referring to a hilly or mountainous area ć
Highland vegetation is mainly grass,
heather and herbs.
high-level high-level waste waste, high-level nuclear
waste, high-level radioactive waste noun
waste that is hot and emits strong radiation
high-performance high-performance adjective designed
to operate very efficiently
high production volume chemical high production volume chemical
noun a chemical of which more than 1000
tonnes is sold per year per manufacturer or
importer
high-risk high-risk adjective having a strong likeli-
hood of damage or injury ć high-risk occu-
pations
high-tech high-tech adjective technologically ad-
vanced (informal)
high-tension high-tension adjective (of electricity ca-
ble) carrying a high voltage
Highways Highways Department Department noun a local
government office dealing with all matters
affecting the planning, construction and
maintenance of roads in an area
high-yielding high-yielding adjective producing a large crop ć They have started to grow high-yielding varieties of wheat.
hill hill noun an area of ground higher than the surrounding areas but not as high as a mountain
hill hill farm farm noun a farm in mountainous country, with 95% or more of its land classified as rough grazing, mainly for sheep
hillside hillside noun the sloping side of a hill
hinterland hinterland noun an area of land lying behind the shore of the sea or of a river
histaminic histaminic adjective referring to histamine
histo- histo- prefix biological tissue
histochemistry histochemistry noun the study of the chemical constituents of cells and tissues and their function and distribution
histology histology noun the study of the anatomy of tissue cells and minute cellular structures, using a microscope after the cells have been stained
history history noun 1. the study of what happened in the past ć the history of science 2. a record of past events and experiences ć the history of the discovery of DNA ć the life history of a frog
hoar hoar frost frost noun the frozen dew that forms on outside surfaces when the temperature falls below freezing point
hoe hoe noun a garden implement, with a small sharp blade, used to break up the surface of soil or cut off weeds í verb to cultivate land with a hoe
Holarctic Holarctic region region noun a biogeographical region which includes the Nearctic, i.e. North America, and the Palaearctic, i.e. Europe, North Africa and North Asia
holiday holiday home home noun a house where a person only lives for part of the time, such as at weekends or during a holiday. Also called second home
holistic holistic adjective referring to an approach that deals with a subject as a whole rather than looking at just one aspect
hollow hollow adjective referring to an object with a space inside it ć hollow plant stems
holophytic holophytic adjective referring to organisms such as plants that can make complex organic molecules by photosynthesis
holoplankton holoplankton plural noun organisms which remain as plankton throughout their entire life cycle, e.g. algae
holozoic holozoic adjective referring to organisms such as animals that feed on other organisms or organic matter
107
house
home home noun 1. a place where a person or
animal lives 2. an environment or habitat
home home consumption consumption noun the eating,
drinking or use of something in the home
rather than in a public place ć Home con-
sumption of alcohol has increased greatly
over the last twenty years.
Home Grown Cereals Authority Home Grown Cereals Authority
noun full form of HGCA
homeo- homeo- prefix similar
homeostasis homeostasis noun 1. the tendency of a
system to resist change and maintain itself
in a state of equilibrium 2. the process by
which the functions and chemistry of a cell
or organism are kept stable, even when ex-
ternal conditions vary greatly
homeotherm homeotherm noun another spelling of
homoiotherm
home home range range noun the area that an animal
moves about in during its day-to-day activ-
ities (NOTE: Do not confuse with territory,
which is a defended area and may be part
or all of the home range.)
home home zone zone noun a street or group of
streets organised to be suitable for the
needs of pedestrians and cyclists rather
than motorists (NOTE: There are traffic-
calming measure to encourage motorists to
drive slowly and sometimes play areas or
sitting areas.)
homing homing noun an animal’s return to a spe-
cific site which is used for sleeping or
breeding
hominid hominid noun any member of the family
of humans, especially humans early in their
history
homo- homo- prefix same. Compare hetero-
homoeo- homoeo- prefix same as homeo-
homoiotherm homoiotherm
,
homoeotherm
noun
same as endotherm
homologous homologous adjective having the same
structural features
homologous homologous pair pair noun a pair of chro-
mosomes in a diploid organism that are
structurally similar and have the same ar-
rangement of genes, although they may
carry different alleles (NOTE: One member
of each pair is inherited from each parent.)
homosphere homosphere noun the zone of the
Earth’s atmosphere, including the tropo-
sphere, the stratosphere and the meso-
sphere, where the composition of the at-
mosphere remains relatively constant
homozygosity homozygosity noun the state of being
homozygous
homozygous homozygous adjective relating to a cell
or organism that has two identical forms
(alleles) of a gene
honeypot honeypot site site noun a place that attracts
large numbers of visitors because of its rep-
utation or position
hookworm hookworm noun a parasitic worm in the
intestine which holds onto the wall of the
intestine with its teeth and lives on the
blood and protein of the carrier
horizon horizon noun 1. the line where the sky
and the ground appear to join 2. a layer of
soil which is of a different colour or texture
from the rest
horizontal-axis wind turbine horizontal-axis wind turbine
noun a
wind turbine with two or three blades at-
tached to a central hub that drives a gener-
ator and where the main shaft is parallel
with the surface of the ground ć Horizon-
tal-axis wind turbines are the most common
form of wind turbine.
hormonal hormonal adjective referring to hor-
mones
hormone hormone noun 1. a substance produced
in animals in one part of the body which
has a particular effect in another part of the
body 2. a plant growth factor
horticultural horticultural adjective referring to horti-
culture
horticulture horticulture noun the cultivation of
flowers, fruit and vegetables in gardens,
nurseries or glasshouses, as a science, oc-
cupation or leisure activity. ı botanical
horticulture
horticulturist horticulturist noun a person who spe-
cialises in horticulture
host host noun a plant or animal on which a
parasite lives í adjective referring to a
plant or animal on which a parasite lives
host–parasite interaction host–parasite interaction
noun a re-
lationship between a host and a parasite
hot hot adjective 1. having a high temperature
ć hot weather ć hot water 2. dangerously
radioactive (informal) 3. electrically
charged 4. extremely infectious
hot hot desert desert noun a desert situated in the
tropics, e.g. the Sahara Desert or the Arabi-
an Desert. Also called tropical desert
hot hot rock rock noun a rock with a high temper-
ature beneath the Earth’s surface (NOTE: Hot
rocks can be used to create geothermal en-
ergy by pumping down cold water and mak-
ing use of the rising hot water which the
rocks have heated.)
hotspot hotspot noun a place where background
radiation is particularly high
house house noun 1. a building where a person
lives 2. a structure where animals or ma-
chinery are kept ć the reptile house ć the
engine house
housefly
108
housefly housefly noun a common fly living in houses, which can spread disease by laying its eggs in decaying meat and vegetables
household household noun a group of people living together in a single home í adjective 1. referring to or used in houses where people live ć household appliances such as fridges and ovens 2. familiar ć household knowledge
household household refuse refuse, household waste noun same as domestic refuse
housing housing noun the buildings where people live
housing housing estate estate noun an area of land with buildings specially designed and constructed for residential use HSE HSE abbr Health and Safety Executive
human human adjective referring to a man, woman or child í noun same as human being ć Most animals are afraid of humans.
human human being being noun a man, woman or child
human human capital capital noun the information and skills of individual people which form the basis of knowledge can be increased by training
human-caused human-caused adjective referring to a disaster or event which has been brought about by human beings human human ecology ecology noun the study of communities of people, the place that they occupy in the natural world and the ways in which they adapt to or change the environment
human human geography geography noun the study of the distribution of human populations with reference to their geographical environment
human-induced human-induced stress stress noun stress in animals caused by interactions with humans
humankind humankind noun all human beings considered as a whole
human human race race noun same as humankind
human human settlement settlement noun a place such as a village or city where humans live
human human timescale timescale noun the time during which humans have existed on earth, i.e. several thousand years
humate humate noun a salt that is derived from humus
humid humid adjective relating to air that contains moisture vapour ć Decomposition of organic matter is rapid in hot and humid conditions.
humidifier humidifier noun a device for making dry
air moist, especially in air conditioning or
heating systems
humidify humidify noun to make something moist
humidity humidity noun a measurement of how
much water vapour is contained in the air
humification humification noun the breakdown of rot-
ting organic waste to form humus
humify humify verb to break down rotting organ-
ic waste to form humus
humus humus noun 1. the fibrous organic matter
in soil, formed from decomposed plants
and animal remains, which makes the soil
dark and binds it together 2. a dark organic
residue left after sewage has been treated in
sewage works
hunt hunt verb to follow and kill wild animals
for sport í noun 1. an organised event dur-
ing which a group of people and often dogs
hunt a wild animal for sport ć a fox hunt ć
a deer hunt 2. also Hunt a group of people
who regularly hunt together
hunter hunter noun a person who follows and
kills wild animals for sport í plural noun
hunters people who kill wild animals for
food. Compare gatherers
hunting hunting noun the activity of following
and killing wild animals for sport
hunting hunting season season noun the time of year
when people hunt animals for sport
hunt hunt saboteur saboteur noun a person who ob-
jects to hunting and tries to prevent hunts
taking place
hurricane hurricane noun a tropical storm with ex-
tremely strong winds
husband husband verb to use a resource carefully
husbanding husbanding noun the activity of using a
resource carefully ć a policy of husbanding
scarce natural resources
husbandry husbandry noun the activity of looking
after farm animals and crops ć a new sys-
tem of intensive cattle husbandry
hybrid hybrid noun a new form of plant or animal
resulting from a cross between organisms
that have different genotypes ć high-yield-
ing maize hybrids í adjective being the re-
sult of a cross between organisms that have
different genotypes
hybridisation hybridisation
,
hybridization
noun
the
production of hybrids
hybrid hybrid vigour vigour noun same as heterosis
hydr- hydr- prefix same as hydro- (NOTE: used
before vowels)
hydrarch hydrarch adjective relating to the se-
quence of ecological stages that begins in a
freshwater habitat such as a pond
109
hyperparasite
hydraulic hydraulic gradient gradient noun the direction of ground water flow due to changes in the depth of the water table
hydric hydric adjective referring to an environment that is wet. Compare xeric
hydro- hydro- prefix water hydrocarbon hydrocarbon noun a compound formed of hydrogen and carbon
COMMENT: Hydrocarbons are found in fossil fuels such as coal, oil, petroleum and natural gas. They form a large part of exhaust fumes from cars and contribute to the formation of smog. When released into the air from burning coal or oil they react in the sunlight with nitrogen dioxide to form ozone. Hydrocarbons are divided into aliphatic hydrocarbons (paraffins, acetylenes and olefins) and aromatic hydrocarbons (benzenes).
hydroelectric hydroelectric adjective relating to hydroelectricity ć The valley was flooded to construct the hydroelectric scheme.
hydroelectricity hydroelectricity noun the electricity produced by water power
hydroelectric hydroelectric power power noun the electricity produced by using a flow of water to drive turbines. Also called hydropower
hydrofluorocarbon hydrofluorocarbon noun a chemical that is emitted as a by-product of industrial processes and contributes to global warming, although it does not damage the ozone layer. Abbr HFC hydrogen hydrogen noun a gaseous chemical element that combines with oxygen to form water, with other elements to form acids, and is present in all animal tissue (NOTE:
Hydrogen is also used as a moderator to
show the speed of neutrons in some nuclear reactors. The chemical symbol is H; the
atomic number is 1 and the atomic weight is 1.01.)
hydrogen hydrogen carbonate carbonate noun a salt of carbonic acid in which one hydrogen atom has been replaced, usually by a metal. Also called bicarbonate
hydrogen hydrogen cyanide cyanide noun a poisonous liquid or gas with a smell of almonds, which is found naturally in some plants such as cassava or almond nuts. Formula: HCN. hydrograph hydrograph noun a graph showing the level or flow of water in a river or lake
hydrography hydrography noun the science of measuring and charting rivers, lakes and seas
hydrological hydrological adjective referring to hydrology
hydrology hydrology noun the study of water, its composition and properties and in particular the place of water in the environment
hydrometer hydrometer noun an instrument that measures the density of a liquid hydromorphic hydromorphic soil soil noun waterlogged soil found in bogs and marshes hydrophyte hydrophyte noun a plant that lives in water or in marshy conditions hydroponics hydroponics noun the practice of growing plants in a nutrient liquid with or without sand, vermiculite or other granular material hydropower hydropower noun same as hydroelec-
tric power
hydrosere hydrosere noun a series of plant communities growing in water or in wet conditions. ı clisere, lithosere, xerosere hydrosphere hydrosphere noun all the water on the Earth, in the atmosphere, the sea and on land hydrostatic hydrostatic adjective referring to water that is not moving hydrothermal hydrothermal adjective referring to water and heat under the Earth’s crust hydroxide hydroxide noun a metallic compound containing inorganic OH- groups giving it basic properties hygiene hygiene noun 1. the state or practice of being clean and keeping healthy conditions 2. the science of health hygienic hygienic adjective referring to the state or practice of being clean ć hygienic conditions ć Don’t touch the food with dirty hands – it isn’t hygienic.
hygro- hygro- prefix wet hygrometer hygrometer noun an instrument used for the measurement of humidity ć The most common type of hygrometer is the wet and dry bulb thermometer arrangement.
hygrometry hygrometry noun the scientific measurement of humidity hygroscope hygroscope noun a device or substance which gives an indication of humidity, often by changing colour hygroscopic hygroscopic adjective referring to a substance which absorbs moisture from the atmosphere hyp- hyp- prefix same as hypo- (NOTE: used be-
fore vowels)
hyper- hyper- prefix over, above, higher or too much. Opposite hypohyperaccumulate hyperaccumulate verb to take up and retain an unusually high concentration of metal from the environment hyperactive hyperactive adjective being unusually active and restless hyperparasite hyperparasite noun a parasite which is a parasite on other parasites
hypersensitive
110
hypersensitive hypersensitive adjective reacting more strongly than usual to a factor such as stress, an antigen, an event or a disease agent hypersensitivity hypersensitivity noun a condition in which an organism reacts unusually strongly to a factor such as stress, an antigen, an event or a disease agent hypertonic hypertonic adjective referring to a solution with a higher osmotic pressure than that of another solution to which it is compared hypha hypha noun a long thin structure containing cytoplasm that is part of the network forming the vegetative body of a fungus
(NOTE: The plural is hyphae.)
hypo- hypo- prefix under, less, too little or too small. Opposite hyperhypogeal hypogeal adjective occurring or developing below ground. Compare epigeal
hypolimnion hypolimnion noun the lowest layer of water in a lake, which is cold and stationary and contains less oxygen than upper layers.
ı epilimnion, metalimnion
hypothesis hypothesis noun a suggestion that something may account for observed facts, though without proof, used as a basis for reasoning (NOTE: The plural is hypothe-
ses.)
hypotonic hypotonic adjective referring to a solution with lower osmotic pressure than that of another solution to which it is compared hypoxia hypoxia noun the depletion of oxygen in water caused by too great a supply of nutrients stimulating the growth of algae which use large amounts of oxygen as they decompose hypoxic hypoxic water water noun water containing very little oxygen Hz Hz abbr hertz
I
II symbol iodine
IAEA IAEA abbr International Atomic Energy Authority
ice ice noun frozen water
COMMENT: Ice is formed when water freezes at 0°C. Ice is less dense than water and so floats. Because the ice in the polar ice caps is very thick and has been formed over many thousands of years, scientists are able to discover information about the climate over a very long period of time by examining core samples obtained by drilling into the ice.
Ice Ice Age Age noun a long period of time when Earth’s temperature was cool and large areas of the surface were covered with ice
iceberg iceberg noun a very large block of ice floating in the sea, formed when ice breaks away from an Arctic glacier or ice sheet
ice ice cap cap noun same as polar ice cap
ice ice floe floe noun a block of ice floating in the sea
ice ice sheet sheet noun a large area of thick ice in the north or south polar regions
ice ice shelf shelf noun an outer margin of an ice cap or ice sheet that extends into and over the sea
-icide -icide suffix substance which destroys a particular organism
ICRP ICRP abbr International Commission on Radiological Protection identical identical adjective exactly the same as something else identification identification noun the action or process of recognising or establishing the nature of something ć keys for the identification of plants ć the identification of our priorities identify identify verb 1. to recognise somebody or something as different from somebody or something else ć The team has identified a new species. 2. to understand the nature of something ć We soon identified the problem. igneous igneous adjective referring to rock such as basalt and granite, formed from molten lava. ı metamorphic, sedimentary illegal illegal adjective referring to an action not permitted by the criminal law illegally illegally adverb in a way that is not according to the law ć The company was accused of illegally felling protected forest. illuviation illuviation noun the movement of particles and chemicals from the topsoil into the subsoil imago imago noun an insect in the final adult stage after metamorphosis imbalance imbalance noun a situation where the balance between a set of things is unequal
111
impregnate
ć Lack of vitamins A and E creates hormo-
nal imbalances in farm animals.
imbricate imbricate adjective on top of and partial-
ly covering something
immature immature adjective referring to an organ-
ism or part that is still developing ć an im-
mature duck ć an immature fruit
immigrant immigrant species species noun a species that
migrates into or is introduced into an eco-
system, deliberately or accidentally
immigration immigration noun the movement of an
individual into a new area. Opposite emi-
gration
immune immune adjective referring to a person,
other animal or plant that is not affected by
a specific microorganism ć This barley
strain is not immune to the virus.
immunisation immunisation noun the production of
immunity to a specific disease, either by in-
jecting an antiserum or by giving an indi-
vidual the disease in such a small dose that
the body does not develop the disease, but
produces antibodies to counteract it
immunity immunity noun 1. the natural or acquired
ability of a person or other animal to resist
a microorganism and the disease it causes
ć The vaccine gives immunity to tuberculo-
sis. 2. the ability of a plant to resist disease
through a protective covering on leaves,
through the formation of protoplasts or
through the development of inactive forms
of viruses
immunological immunological adjective referring to
immunology
immunological response immunological response
noun the
response of an animal to an attack by para-
sites by the production of antibodies
immunology immunology noun the study of immuni-
ty and immunisation
impact impact noun 1. a collision of one object
against another 2. the effect that something
or someone has
impact impact assessment assessment noun an evalua-
tion of the effect upon the environment of
an activity such as a large construction pro-
gramme or the draining of marshes. Also
called impact study
impacted impacted area area noun an area of land af-
fected by something such as a large-scale
building project
impact impact study study noun same as impact as-
sessment
impair impair verb to cause something to become
less effective ć An unfortunate legacy of
past contamination still impairs the ecosys-
tem.
impairment impairment noun 1. the inability of
something to function effectively 2. the
process of damaging something so that it does not function effectively
imperial imperial unit unit noun a unit in a system measuring weight, distance and volume in pounds, yards and gallons and their subunits, now generally replaced by SI units
impermeable impermeable adjective 1. referring to a substance which does not allow a liquid or gas to pass through ć rocks which are impermeable to water 2. referring to a membrane which allows a liquid to pass through, but not solid particles suspended in the liquid
impervious impervious adjective not allowing a liquid to enter
implementation implementation noun the process of carrying out a plan ć the rapid implementation of flood defence plans
implication implication noun 1. a suggestion rather than a direct statement ć There was an implication that the method was unsound. 2. the effect that one thing has on another ć The recent cuts in funding carry serious implications for research.
import import verb 1. to bring something into a country from abroad 2. to introduce new things from elsewhere í noun 1. the action of bringing something into a country from abroad 2. something brought into a country from abroad
Important Important Plant Area Plant Area noun a natural or semi-natural site supporting an exceptionally rich range of plants or populations of species that are of concern, or is a threatened habitat. Abbr IPA
impoundment impoundment noun a body of water or sludge confined by a barrier such as a dam, dyke or floodgate
impoverish impoverish verb to reduce the quality of something ˽ to impoverish the soil to make soil less fertile ć Overcultivation has impoverished the soil.
impoverished impoverished adjective referring to something with reduced quality ć If impoverished soil is left fallow for some years, nutrients may build up in the soil again.
impoverishment impoverishment noun a reduction in quality
impregnate impregnate verb 1. to fill something with a substance by passing it inside through the outer surface ć Fruits on sale may be impregnated with pesticides even if they have been washed. ć They impregnated the wooden posts with creosote. 2. to fertilise a female, by introducing male spermatozoa into the female’s body so that they fuse with the female’s ova
imprint
112
imprint imprint verb (of young animals) to learn
from a source, usually the mother, by imita-
tion at a very early age, usually occurring
during a very brief period such as the first
few hours after a bird has hatched
improvement improvement grant grant noun a grant avail-
able to improve the standard of a building
or an area. Grants are available for a variety
of purposes, such as putting in domestic
drainage and bathrooms, the eradication of
bracken on pasture land, or providing a wa-
ter supply to fields.
impulse impulse noun 1. a force of short duration
2. a sudden strong feeling
impulse impulse turbine turbine noun a turbine where
jets of water are directed at bucket-shaped
blades which catch the water
impulsive impulsive adjective 1. propelling or hav-
ing the power to propel 2. done suddenly
impure impure adjective not pure
impurity impurity plural noun a substance that
makes another substance not pure or clean
ć impurities in drinking water (NOTE: The
plural is impurities.)
in. in. abbr inch
inactivate inactivate verb to make something una-
ble to act ć The ultraviolet component of
sunlight inactivates some herbicides.
inactive inactive adjective 1. not doing anything
2. (of a volcano) not erupting or likely to
erupt, though not necessarily extinct 3. (of
a chemical) not reacting with other sub-
stances 4. (of a disease) not producing
symptoms 5. biologically inert
inactivity inactivity noun the state of not being ac-
tive
inbred inbred adjective resulting from inbreed-
ing
inbreeding inbreeding noun the process of mating
or crossing between closely related individ-
uals, leading to a reduction in variation.
Compare outbreeding (NOTE: Inbreeding
as a result of self-fertilisation occurs natu-
rally in many plants)
inbreeding inbreeding depression depression noun a reduc-
tion in variation and vigour arising in an
outbreeding population that is repeatedly
inbred. Compare heterosis
incapacity incapacity noun not having the neces-
sary power to do something
incentive incentive noun something which encour-
ages someone to do something
incentive-based regulation incentive-based regulation
noun the
use of official measures to affect the eco-
nomic behaviour of companies and house-
holds to achieve environmental goals ć
Emission taxes are a form of incentive-
based regulation.
inch inch noun a British Imperial System unit of length, also used in the USA, equal to 25.4 millimetres or 2.54 centimetres or 1/12 of a foot. Abbr in. (NOTE: The plural is
inches.)
incidence incidence noun the frequency of occurrence of something ć the incidence of flooding
incident incident noun an event or happening which interrupts usual activities ˽ without incident without any problems occurring ć The research review passed without incident.
incinerate incinerate verb to burn a substance such as waste
incineration incineration noun the burning of a substance such as waste ć Uncontrolled incineration can contribute to atmospheric pollution. ć Controlled incineration of waste is an effective method of disposal. incineration incineration ash ash noun a powder left after a substance has been burnt
incineration incineration plant plant noun an industrial site which has furnaces for burning waste
incinerator incinerator noun a device in which a substance such as waste is burnt
incipient incipient adjective in the early stages of development incipient incipient lethal level lethal level noun the concentration of toxic substances at which 50% of affected organisms will die
include include verb to add as a part with others ć Please include full bibliographical details in your report.
inclusion inclusion noun the state of having or an act of adding something as a part ć the inclusion of checks at each stage
inclusive inclusive fitness fitness noun the sum of an organism’s Darwinian fitness with the fitness of its relatives
incompatibility incompatibility noun the state of being incompatible
incompatible incompatible adjective 1. having basic differences that prevent effective joint working ć Our ideas were incompatible with their outline plans. 2. unable to crossfertilize and produce offspring
increase increase noun the act or an instance of becoming greater or more ć Decreasing engine rpm results in an increase in the rate of descent. Opposite reduction í verb to become greater or more or make something greater or more ć As you increase in height, the countryside below you appears to flatten out. ć Efforts are being made to increase productivity. Opposite reduce ̈ opposite (all senses) decrease
113
industrial park
incubate incubate verb 1. to keep eggs warm until the young birds come out, either by an adult bird sitting on them or in an incubator 2. to keep microorganisms at a temperature that promotes their growth
incubation incubation noun 1. the process of keeping eggs warm until the young birds come out, either by an adult bird sitting on them or by artificial means 2. the process of keeping microorganisms at a temperature that matures their growth
incubator incubator noun a container that keeps a constant temperature and controls other environmental conditions (NOTE: Incubators
are used for allowing premature babies to grow, hen’s eggs to hatch, or microorganisms to develop.)
indefinite indefinite adjective without a clear end or purpose ć an indefinite period ć indefinite plans
indehiscent indehiscent adjective referring to seed pods, fruit or capsules that do not open to release seeds when ripe. Compare dehis-
cent
indentation indentation noun a gap in the edge of something ć The indentations of the leaves were typical of the species.
independent independent adjective free from the influence or effects of other people or things ć an independent existence
indeterminate indeterminate waste waste noun waste which is more radioactive than low-level waste, but not as dangerous as high-level waste
indicator indicator noun 1. something which shows the state of something else 2. a substance which shows that another substance is present 3. an organism whose presence or absence in an environment indicates conditions such as oxygen level or the presence of a contaminating substance ć Lichens act as indicators for atmospheric pollution. Also called indicator organism
indicator indicator organism organism noun same as indi-
cator
indicator indicator species species noun a species which is very sensitive to particular changes in the environment and can show that environmental changes are taking place
indigenous indigenous adjective native to a place ć There are six indigenous species of monkey on the island. ć Bluebells are indigenous to the British Isles.
individual individual noun a single organism or item considered as one rather than as a member of a group
individual individual variation variation noun the range of
differences found between individuals
within a population
indoor indoor air pollution air pollution noun the pollution
inside a building, caused by something
such as smoke or carbon monoxide
indoor indoor air quality air quality noun the condition of
the air inside buildings, including the extent
of pollution caused by smoking, dust,
mites, mould spores, radon, as well as gases
and chemicals from materials and applianc-
es
induce induce verb to cause something to happen
ć an animal induced to live in the reserve
inductive inductive reasoning reasoning noun the drawing
of a general conclusion based on a limited
set of observations. Compare deductive
reasoning
indumentum indumentum noun a covering of hairs
on plant leaves or stems, or of hairs or
feathers on an animal
industrial industrial adjective referring to indus-
tries or factories
industrial industrial crop crop noun a crop grown for
purposes other than food, e.g. flax grown
for fibre
industrial industrial dereliction dereliction noun the ugly
and neglected condition of a landscape or
environment that has been damaged by in-
dustrial processes
industrial development industrial development
noun the
planning of new industries and the con-
struction of new factories and production
facilities
industrial industrial effluent effluent noun the liquid
waste produced by industrial processes.
Also called industrial sewage
industrial industrial estate estate noun an area of land
with buildings specially designed and con-
structed for light industries
industrialisation industrialisation
,
industrialization
noun the process of developing industry in
a country
industrialise industrialise
,
industrialize
verb
to
de-
velop industry in a country, by building fac-
tories and encouraging new processes and
methods of production
industrialist industrialist noun a person who owns or
manages an industrial business
industrial industrial melanism melanism noun the increase
in the numbers of animals such as moths
with dark coloration in places where indus-
tries create a lot of black smoke, causing
discoloration of surfaces and allowing
predators to see and feed on lighter-col-
oured individuals more easily
industrial industrial park park noun same as industrial
estate
industrial sewage
114
industrial industrial sewage sewage noun same as in-
dustrial effluent
industrial industrial waste waste noun the waste produced by industrial processes. Compare
post-consumer waste
industry industry noun the factories, companies or processes involved in the manufacturing of products
inert inert adjective referring to a chemical substance or gas that does not react with other chemicals
inert inert gas gas noun same as noble gas ć Inert gases, dust, smoke, salt, volcanic ash, oxygen and nitrogen together constitute 99% of the atmosphere.
infect infect verb 1. (of an organism) to enter a host organism and cause disease ć The new strain has infected many people and the disease is spreading fast. ć All these plants have been infected by a virus. 2. to contaminate something with a microorganism that causes disease
infection infection noun 1. the process of a microorganism entering a host organism and causing disease ć As a carrier he was spreading infection to other people in the office. 2. a disease caused by a microorganism ć West Nile fever is a virus infection transmitted by mosquitoes. ć Coral spot is a fungal infection that affects woody plants.
infectious infectious adjective referring to a disease that is caused by microorganisms and can be transmitted to other individuals by direct means ć This strain of flu is highly infectious. Compare contagious
infective infective adjective referring to a disease caused by a microorganism, which can be caught from another person but which cannot always be directly transmitted
infectivity infectivity noun the state of being infective
inference inference noun a deduction of results from data according to specific rules
infertile infertile adjective 1. referring to any organism that is not able to reproduce or produce offspring 2. referring to trees and plants that are not able to produce fruit or seeds 3. referring to soil that is not able to produce good crops
infertility infertility noun the inability to reproduce or have offspring
infest infest verb (of pests) to be present somewhere in large numbers ć Pine forests are infested with these beetles. ć Plants that have been infested should be dug up and burnt.
infestation infestation noun the presence of large numbers of pests ć The crop showed a serious infestation of greenfly. infiltration infiltration noun the passing of water into the soil or into a drainage system infiltration infiltration water water noun the water which passes into the soil or into a drainage system inflammable inflammable adjective easily set on fire ć Petrol is an inflammable liquid. Opposite
non-flammable (NOTE: Flammable and inflammable mean the same thing. To
avoid confusion, it is recommended to use flammable.)
inflate inflate verb to blow air into something and thereby increase its size ć A sharp pull on the cord will discharge the gas bottle and inflate the life jacket. Opposite deflate inflorescence inflorescence noun a flower or a group of flowers on a stem inflow inflow noun the action of flowing in ć an inflow of effluent into a river influent influent noun 1. a stream or river flowing into a larger river 2. an organism which has an important effect on the balance of its community infrared infrared radiation radiation noun long invisible rays, below the visible red end of the colour spectrum, which form part of the warming radiation which the Earth receives from the Sun infrared infrared rays rays plural noun ‘ infrared ra-
diation
infrastructure infrastructure noun 1. the basic framework of a system or organisation 2. the basic facilities and systems of a country or city, e.g. roads, pipelines, electricity and telecommunications networks, schools or hospitals ingest ingest verb to take in or absorb food ingestion ingestion noun the process of taking in or absorbing food inhabit inhabit verb to live in a place inhabitant inhabitant noun an animal or plant which lives or grows in a place inherit inherit verb to receive a genetically controlled characteristic from a parent ć Flower colour is inherited. inheritance inheritance noun the transfer of genetically controlled characteristics from parent to offspring inhibit inhibit verb to prevent or limit the effect of something ć Cloud cover inhibits cooling of the Earth’s surface at night. inhibition inhibition noun the prevention or limitation of the effect of something ć Fuel contains chemicals for the inhibition of fungal growth.
115
insulation material
inject inject verb 1. to force or drive a fluid into
something 2. to inject a liquid into a body
using a syringe 3. to introduce something
new or stimulating
injection injection noun 1. the forcing of fluid into
something 2. the act of injecting a liquid
into a body using a syringe 3. the introduc-
tion of something new or stimulating
inland inland adjective not near a sea coast
inland inland water water noun a body of water away
from a sea coast, e.g. a river, canal or lake
inlet inlet noun 1. an opening which allows an
intake of something ć an air inlet 2. the
mouth of a small river in a coast or lake
inner inner adjective being further inside or fur-
ther towards the centre of something ć the
inner ear
inner inner city city noun a part of a city at or near
the centre, especially an area where there is
high-density housing and sometimes a
poorly maintained environment
innovative technology innovative technology
noun new or
inventive methods to treat hazardous waste,
prevent pollution or conserve energy
inoculate inoculate verb 1. to introduce vaccine
into a body in order to stimulate the produc-
tion of antibodies to a particular organism,
giving rise to immunity to the disease ć
The baby was inoculated against diphthe-
ria. 2. to introduce a microorganism into a
plant or a growth medium
inorganic inorganic adjective 1. referring to a sub-
stance which does not come from an animal
or a plant ć Inorganic substances include
acids, alkalis and metals. 2. referring to a
substance that does not contain carbon
inorganic inorganic acid acid noun an acid which
comes from a mineral
inorganic inorganic fertiliser fertiliser noun an artificially
synthesised fertiliser
inorganic inorganic matter matter noun a substance
which does not contain carbon
inorganic inorganic pesticide pesticide noun a pesticide
made from inorganic substances such as
sulfur
inorganic inorganic waste waste noun substances such
as glass, metals, dust or synthetic products
disposed of as waste. Compare organic
waste
input input noun something such as energy,
electrical power, fertilisers or information,
put into a system to achieve a specific result
ć inputs and outputs of nutrients to ecosys-
tems
inquiry inquiry noun another spelling of enquiry
(NOTE: The plural is inquiries.)
insanitary insanitary adjective unhygienic ć Cholera spread rapidly because of the insanitary conditions in the town. insect insect noun a small animal with six legs and a body in three parts insect-borne insect-borne adjective referring to infection which is carried and transmitted by insects ć insect-borne viruses ć Malaria is an insect-borne disease. insecticide insecticide noun a substance which is used to kill insects insectivore insectivore noun an animal that feeds mainly on insects insectivorous insectivorous adjective referring to an animal or plant that feeds mainly on insects
(NOTE: Pitcher plants and sundews are in-
sectivorous.)
inselberg inselberg noun a steep-sided isolated hill that stands above nearby hills inshore inshore adjective referring to an area of sea near the coast inshore inshore waters waters plural noun the parts of the sea that are near a coast in-situ in-situ adjective, adverb referring to the study, maintenance or conservation of an organism within its natural surroundings. Compare ex-situ insolation insolation noun the radiation from the Sun insoluble insoluble adjective referring to a substance that cannot be dissolved in liquid inspect inspect verb to look at something closely to see if it is in the correct condition or if there are problems inspection inspection noun a careful check to see if something is in the correct condition or if there are problems ć The officials have carried out an inspection of the factory to see if waste is being properly managed. installation installation noun the act of putting equipment or devices into the position and condition in which they will be used ć the installation of an irrigation system instar instar noun a developmental stage of insects and other arthropods between two moults instinct instinct noun a pattern of behaviour particular to a species and developed in response to priorities such as survival and reproduction insulate insulate verb to prevent the passing of heat, cold or sound into or out of an area insulation insulation noun the act of preventing the passing of heat, cold, sound or electricity from one area to another insulation insulation material material noun material used to insulate something, especially a building
intake
116
intake intake noun an opening through which a
fluid is allowed into a container or tube
integrated crop management integrated crop management
noun
an approach to growing crops that com-
bines traditional good farm husbandry with
reduction in the use of agrochemicals and
takes into consideration the impact of farm-
ing practices on the environment
integrated farm management integrated farm management
, inte-
grated farming noun an approach to farm-
ing that combines the best of traditional
methods with modern technology, to
achieve high productivity with a low envi-
ronmental impact
integrated pest management integrated pest management
noun
an appropriate combination of different
methods of pest control, involving good
cultivation practices, use of chemical pesti-
cides, resistant crop varieties and biological
control. Abbr IPM
integrated pollution control integrated pollution control
, inte-
grated pollution prevention and control
noun an approach which looks at all inputs
and outputs from a process that is likely to
cause pollution and regulates other factors
as well as emissions. Abbr IPC, IPPC
intensification intensification noun 1. the process of
becoming stronger or greater 2. the use of
intensive farming methods ć Intensifica-
tion of farming has contributed to soil ero-
sion. Compare extensification
intensify intensify verb 1. to become stronger or
greater 2. to use intensive farming methods
intensity intensity noun the degree or strength of
something ć high intensity of land use in a
small country with a large population ć
These plants grow well in low light intensi-
ty.
intensive intensive adjective achieving maximum
production from land or animals ć inten-
sive agriculture
intensive intensive agriculture agriculture, intensive farm-
ing, intensive cultivation noun a method
of farming in which as much use is made of
the land as possible by growing crops close
together, growing several crops in a year or
using large amounts of fertiliser. Opposite
extensive agriculture. Also called pro-
ductive agriculture
intensive animal breeding intensive animal breeding
noun a
system of raising animals in which live-
stock are kept indoors and fed on concen-
trated foodstuffs, with frequent use of
drugs to control the diseases which tend to
occur under these conditions
intensively intensively adverb using intensive farm-
ing methods
inter- inter- prefix between
interaction interaction noun a relationship between
two or more organisms or things
interactive interactive adjective referring to a proc-
ess involving people reacting to and com-
municating with other people or situations
ć an interactive display describing the
process of river pollution
interbreed interbreed verb 1. to mate and have off-
spring 2. to cross animals or plants with dif-
ferent characteristics to produce offspring
with distinctive features (NOTE: Individuals
from the same species can interbreed,
those from different species cannot.)
intercropping intercropping noun the growing of
crops with different characteristics and re-
quirements on the same area of land at the
same time ć intercropping beans with
maize
interdependence interdependence noun a state of two or
more organisms or processes depending on
each other
interdependent interdependent adjective referring to
organisms or things being dependent on
each other
interest interest group group noun a group of people
who are all concerned about the same issue.
They may try to influence the opinions of
politicians, local officials and business peo-
ple on this issue.
interfluve interfluve noun the area of land between
two rivers
intergenerational equity intergenerational equity
noun the
fairness of the distribution of the costs and
benefits of an environmental policy when
they are experienced by different genera-
tions
intergeneric intergeneric adjective involving two or
more genera
interglacial interglacial period period, interglacial noun
the period between two Ice Ages when the
climate becomes warmer
intergovernmental intergovernmental adjective involving
the governments of several countries
Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
mate Change noun an international
group of expert scientists who assess infor-
mation on climate change
intermediate intermediate adjective referring to a
state or a stage between two others
intermediate intermediate host host noun a host on
which a parasite lives for a time before
passing on to another host
internal internal adjective on or from the inside of
something. Opposite external
internal combustion engine internal combustion engine
noun a
type of engine used in motor vehicles,
where the fuel is a mixture of petrol and air
117
invertebrate
burnt in a closed chamber to give energy to
the pistons
international international adjective referring to more
than one country
International Atomic Energy Agen- International Atomic Energy Agency
cy noun the agency of the United Nations
Organization dealing with all aspects of nu-
clear energy. Abbr IAEA
International Commission on Ra- International Commission on Radiological Protection
diological Protection noun a group of
scientists who try to decide on worldwide
safety standards for the nuclear industry by
fixing a maximum allowable dose of radia-
tion. Abbr ICRP
International Council of Chemical International Council of Chemical Associations
Associations noun a group of trade as-
sociations representing chemical manufac-
turers worldwide
International Whaling Commis- International Whaling Commission
sion noun an international body set up un-
der an agreement signed in 1946 to control
the commercial killing of whales
internode internode noun the part of a plant stem
between two adjacent nodes
interpretation interpretation noun an explanation of
the meaning or importance of something
intersexual intersexual selection selection noun the selec-
tion of a mate where an individual looks for
special traits in the opposite sex
interspecific interspecific adjective involving two or
more species
interspecific competition interspecific competition
noun the
competition between species for one or
more of the same limited resources of food,
sunlight, water, soil, nutrients or space. ı
fundamental niche
intertidal intertidal adjective relating to land that is
covered by the sea at high tide and exposed
at low tide ć intertidal communities Also
called littoral
intertidal intertidal zone zone noun an area of sea wa-
ter and shore between the high and low wa-
ter marks ć seaweeds of the intertidal zone
intertropical convergence zone intertropical convergence zone
noun the boundary between the trade winds
and tropical air masses of the northern and
southern hemispheres. Abbr ITCZ
intervention intervention noun the act of making a
change in a system
intra- intra- prefix inside or within
intrasexual intrasexual selection selection noun the selec-
tion of a mate where several individuals
compete with each other
intraspecific intraspecific adjective occurring within
a species ć an intraspecific cross between
two cultivars
intraspecific competition intraspecific competition
noun com-
petition from other members of the same
species for the same resources of food, sunlight, water, soil, nutrients or space intrinsic intrinsic value value noun the value placed on the inherent qualities of a species, as opposed to its value to humans introduce introduce verb 1. to bring something into being or start to use something new ć The lab introduced a new rapid method of testing. 2. to bring something to a new place ć Several of the species of plant now common in Britain were introduced by the Romans. ć Starlings were introduced to the USA in 1891.
introduced introduced species species noun a species that has been brought to an area by humans and did not occur there naturally introduction introduction noun 1. the process of bringing something into being or using something new ć the introduction of a new rapid testing method ć The death rate from malaria was very high before the introduction of new anti-malarial techniques. 2. the bringing of something to a new place ć Before the introduction of grey squirrels, the red squirrel was widespread. 3. a plant or animal that has been brought to a new place ć It is not an indigenous species but a 19thcentury introduction. introgression introgression noun the transfer of genes from one species into the gene pool of another as a result of hybridisation intrusion intrusion noun an area of rock which has pushed into other rocks invade invade verb to arrive in an area in large unwanted numbers ć These introduced pests could cause serious problems if they invaded our marine environment. invasion invasion noun the arrival of large numbers of unwanted organisms into an area ć an invasion of weeds invasive invasive adjective referring to an organism that enters an area in large numbers, especially a non-native species that threatens an ecosystem, habitat or other species ć invasive weeds ć Giant hogweed is a non-native invasive species in the British Isles.
inventory inventory noun a list of items existing in a place inversion inversion noun 1. an atmospheric phenomenon in which cold air is nearer the ground than warm air ć Smog is smoke or pollution trapped on the surface by an inversion of temperature with little or no wind. 2. the act of turning something upside down ć Inversion of soil by ploughing buries weeds and weed seeds. invertebrate invertebrate noun an animal that has no backbone. Compare vertebrate í adjec-
in vitro
118
tive referring to animals that have no back-
bone ć marine invertebrate animals
inin vitro vitro adjective, adverb occurring out-
side a living organism, in laboratory condi-
tions ć in vitro experiments ć The tissue
was cultured in vitro.
inin vivo vivo adjective, adverb occurring within
or taking place on a living organism ć in
vivo experiments ć The experiments were
carried out in vivo.
involucre involucre noun a ring of modified leaves
(bracts) at the base of a flower or flower
head
iodine iodine noun a chemical element. It is es-
sential to the body, especially to the func-
tioning of the thyroid gland, and is found in
seaweed. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is I;
the atomic number is 53 and the atomic
weight is 126.90.)
iodise iodise
,
iodize
verb
to
treat
or
impregnate
something with iodine
ion ion noun an atom or a group of atoms that
has obtained an electric charge by gaining
or losing one or more electrons (NOTE: Ions
with a positive charge are called cations
and those with a negative charge are ani-
ons.)
ion-exchange ion-exchange filter filter noun a water-sof-
tening device attached to a water supply to
remove nitrates or calcium from the water
ionisation ionisation
,
ionization
noun
the
produc-
tion of atoms with electric charges
ionise ionise
,
ionize
verb
to
give
an
atom
an
electric charge
ioniser ioniser
,
ionizer
noun
a
machine
that
in-
creases the concentration of negative ions
in the atmosphere of a room, so counteract-
ing the effect of positive ions. Also called
negative ion generator
ionising ionising radiation radiation noun the radiation
that produces atoms with electrical charges
as it passes through a medium, e.g. alpha
particles or X-rays
ionosphere ionosphere noun the part of the atmos-
phere 50km above the Earth’s surface
(NOTE: Because the strength of the Sun’s
radiation varies with latitude, the structure
of the ionosphere varies over the surface of
the Earth. It is composed of 70% nitrogen,
15% oxygen and 15% helium, in which at-
oms are ionised by solar radiation.)
COMMENT: The uppermost layer of Earth’s atmosphere is where most of the atoms are ionised. Some 350 km above sea level, the ionosphere has high temperatures
because high-energy solar photons are captured there, including those in X-ray wavelengths. This prevents radiation which would otherwise be fatal to human
and other life from reaching sea level, so that without the ionosphere any life on Earth would have evolved very differently. The ionosphere is also useful for communications and radar, since it is possible to bounce radio signals off it for transmission beyond the visible horizon.
IPA IPA abbr Important Plant Area IPC IPC ‘ IPPC í abbr integrated pollution
control IPCC IPCC abbr Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPM IPM abbr integrated pest management IPPC IPPC abbr Integrated Pollution Prevention
and Control iris iris noun a plant with coloured flowers and sword-shaped leaves. Genus: Iris. Irish Irish moss moss noun same as carrageen iroko iroko noun an African hardwood tree, formerly widely used but becoming rarer. Lat-
in name: Milicia excelsa. iron iron noun a metallic element. It is essential to biological life. (NOTE: The chemical
symbol is Fe; the atomic number is 26 and
atomic weight is 55.85.)
iron iron oxide oxide noun same as ferric oxide iron iron pan pan noun a layer of deposition in podzol soils iron iron pyrites pyrites noun same as pyrite irradiance irradiance noun the amount of radiation
received in a specific area irradiate irradiate verb to subject something to radiation irradiation irradiation noun 1. the spread of some-
thing from a centre 2. exposure to radiation, especially ionising radiation irradiation irradiation dose dose noun the amount of radiation to which an organism is exposed irreversibility irreversibility noun the inability to
change something back to its earlier state, resulting in its permanent loss irreversible irreversible adjective referring to a proc-
ess that cannot be turned back to its original state ć an irreversible change irrigate irrigate verb to supply water to land to allow plants to grow, by channels, pipes,
sprays or other means irrigation irrigation noun the process of supplying of water to land to allow plants to grow ć
irrigation channels ć New areas of land must be brought under irrigation to meet
the rising demand for food.
COMMENT: Irrigation can be carried out using sprinklers or by channelling water along small irrigation canals from reservoirs or rivers. Irrigation can cause salinisation of the soil, as the soil becomes waterlogged and salts rise to the surface. At the surface, the irrigated water rapidly evaporates, leaving the salts behind as a
119
ivory
saline crust. Irrigation can also increase the spread of disease. Water insects are easily spread through irrigation canals and reservoirs.
irritability irritability noun same as sensitivity
irritant irritant noun a substance or object that can cause irritation (NOTE: An irritant can
have an acute effect on respiration from a single high-level exposure, or chronic effects from repeated low-level exposures.)
island island noun a piece of land surrounded by water, in a sea, river or lake
island island biogeography biogeography noun a theory stating that the number of species on an island or other area results from a dynamic equilibrium between colonisation and extinction
iso- iso- prefix equal
isobar isobar noun a line on a map linking points which are of equal barometric pressure at a given time
isobaric isobaric chart chart noun a weather map showing the isobars at a given time
isohaline isohaline noun a line on a map linking areas of equal salt content
isohyet isohyet noun a line on a map linking points of equal rainfall
isolate isolate verb 1. to separate and keep objects or organisms apart from others ć isolated the sick animals in a separate enclosure ć Organisms that are isolated may evolve into new species. 2. to separate a microorganism from its host or the material on which it grows ć Scientists have isolated the bacterium which lives in air-conditioning systems and causes legionnaires’ disease. í noun a pure culture of a microorganism
isolated isolated adjective separate from others ć an isolated incident
isolation isolation noun a state or the process of being separated and kept apart from other objects or organisms isoproturon isoproturon noun a herbicide used on cereals that is found as a contaminant of surface water (NOTE: It is commonly used in
the UK but it is under review for withdrawal from use in the European Union.)
isotach isotach noun a line on a map linking points where the wind is blowing at the same speed isotherm isotherm noun a line on a map linking points of equal temperature isotope isotope noun a form of a chemical element which has the same chemical properties as other forms, but a different atomic mass isotropic isotropic adjective referring to something that has physical properties that do not differ according to direction isthmus isthmus noun a narrow piece of land linking two larger areas of land ITCZ ITCZ abbr intertropical convergence zone iteration iteration noun a repetition IUCN IUCN noun a union of 140 countries that generates scientific knowledge, advice and standards on environmental subjects and monitors the status of species, publishing findings in its Red Lists. Full form IUCN -
The World Conservation Union
ivory ivory noun a smooth whitish substance forming the tusks of animals such as elephants and walruses, formerly used to make piano keys and ornaments (NOTE: The
ban on the trade in ivory was confirmed at
the 50th Meeting (2004) of the Standing Committee of CITES (Convention on Inter-
national Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) when it was declared that there would be no sale of ivory
until further notice.)
JK
jet jet noun a strong fast stream of fluid forced out of an opening ć a jet of water from a pipe jet jet fuel fuel noun same as kerosene JNCC JNCC abbr Joint Nature Conservation Committee join join noun a place at which two or more things are connected joint joint noun a place at which two bones are connected Joint Implementation Joint Implementation noun a set of agreements made between two or more nations under the Framework Convention on Climate Change to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions Joint Nature Conservation Com- Joint Nature Conservation Committee mittee noun a UK government advisory body on conservation. Abbr JNCC joule joule noun an SI unit of measurement of energy. Symbol J journal journal noun a scientific publication jungle jungle noun a tropical rainforest
(informal )
juvenile juvenile noun a young animal or plant í adjective referring to an animal, plant, organ or type of behaviour that is not yet adult ć The juvenile foliage of eucalyptus is different from its adult foliage.
KK symbol potassium kaolin kaolin noun a fine white clay used for making china, for coating shiny paper and in medicines ć Spoil heaps from kaolin workings are bright white. Also called chi-
na clay
karst karst noun ground typical of limestone country, with an uneven surface and holes and cracks due to weathering katabatic katabatic wind wind noun a cold wind which blows downhill as the ground surface cools at night. Compare anabatic wind katadromous katadromous adjective another spelling of catadromous katadromy katadromy noun another spelling of cat-
adromy
kelp kelp noun a brown seaweed with large leathery fronds. It is a source of iodine and potash. kelp kelp forest forest noun a large area of kelp found in cold and temperate seawater, especially on the western coasts of continents
kelvin kelvin noun a base SI unit of measurement
of thermodynamic temperature. Symbol K
(NOTE: 0° C is equal to 273.15 K. Tempera-
tures are shown in kelvin without a degree
sign: 20 K.)
kernel kernel noun 1. the soft edible part of a nut
2. the seed and husk of a cereal grain
kerosene kerosene
,
kerosine
noun
a
thin
fuel
oil
made from petroleum. Also called jet fuel
ketose ketose noun a simple sugar
key key noun a set of questions to enable
something to be identified or classified ć a
key for identifying lichens
keystone keystone species species noun a species that
plays a significant role in helping to main-
tain the ecosystems that it is part of
kg kg symbol kilogram
kG kG symbol kilogray
khamsin khamsin noun a hot wind that brings dust
storms in North Africa
kieselguhr kieselguhr noun same as diatomaceous
earth
kill kill verb to make someone or something
die í noun 1. an act of making someone or
something die ć Pollutants in water are
one of the main causes of fish kills. 2. prey
which has been killed ć The vultures sur-
rounded the remains of the lion’s kill.
kill kill off off verb to kill all the individual mem-
bers of a species, usually one by one ć Do-
dos were killed off by 18th-century sailors.
kiln kiln noun a furnace used for making some-
thing such as pottery or bricks ć The smoke
from the brick kilns was dispersed by the
prevailing winds.
kilo kilo noun same as kilogram
kilo- kilo- prefix one thousand, 103. Symbol K
kilocalorie kilocalorie noun a unit of measurement
of heat equal to 1000 calories (NOTE: In sci-
entific use, the SI unit joule is now more
usual. 1 calorie = 4.186 joules.)
kilogram kilogram noun the base unit of mass in
the SI system, equal to 1000 grams or
2.2046 pounds. Symbol kg. Also called
kilo
kilogray kilogray noun an SI unit of measurement
of absorbed radiation equal to 1000 grays.
Symbol kG
121
Kyoto Protocol
kilojoule kilojoule noun an SI unit of measurement of energy or heat equal to 1000 joules. Symbol kJ
kilometre kilometre noun a measure of length equal to 1000 metres or 0.621 miles. Symbol km
(NOTE: The US spelling is kilometer.)
kilowatt kilowatt noun a unit of measurement of electricity equal to 1000 watts. Symbol kW
kinesis kinesis noun the movement of a cell or organism in response to the intensity of a stimulus rather than its direction
kinetic kinetic adjective referring to motion or something produced by motion
kinetics kinetics noun the scientific study of bodies in motion
kingdom kingdom noun the largest category in the classification of organisms ć The largest species in the animal kingdom is the whale.
kJ kJ abbr kilojoule
knock knock verb to make a loud noise as the mixture of petrol and air in a petrol engine explodes, caused when the mixture is not rich enough in petrol
knot knot noun 1. a structure formed when several strands are joined together or a single strand is looped on itself 2. a dark area in a piece of wood where a branch formerly grew
Köppen Köppen classification classification noun a standard classification of climate
COMMENT: The classification of climate types was drawn up by Wladimir Köppen in 1900 and has been much modified since then. The classification divides the Earth into five climate types: A, B, C, D and E, according to temperature and rainfall.
Kr Kr symbol krypton
Krebs Krebs cycle cycle noun a series of reactions in which pyruvic acid is broken down in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide. It is the final step in the oxidation of carbohydrates and fats, and occurs in mitochondria. Also called citric acid cycle krill krill noun a mass of tiny shrimps that live in the cold seas of the Antarctic and form the basic diet of many sea animals including whales krotovina krotovina noun an animal burrow that has been filled with organic or mineral material from another soil horizon krummholz krummholz noun 1. the stunted trees that grow just above the timberline on a mountain 2. a high-altitude zone in which krummholz grows krypton krypton noun an inert gas found in very small quantities in the atmosphere (NOTE:
The chemical symbol is Kr; the atomic number is 36 and atomic weight is 83.80.)
K selection K selection noun a process of natural selection that leads to a reduction in births when the population of a species approaches the maximum number that its environment can sustain K strategy K strategy noun a form of reproduction in which a mother produces a few large offspring which need constant care and attention over a long period of time. Compare R
strategy
kW kW abbr kilowatt Kyoto Kyoto Protocol Protocol noun an international agreement on strategies for coping with climate change signed in December 1997 by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
L
lab lab noun same as laboratory (informal) ć The samples have been returned by the lab. label label noun a piece of information attached to something that gives information about it ć pesticide labels í verb 1. to identify something by using a label ć Parts are labelled with the manufacturer’s name. 2. to add identifying words and numbers to a diagram ć There is a standard way of labelling the navigation vector. labelling labelling noun the presentation of information about a product on a label ć regulations for food labelling laboratory laboratory noun a room with equipment for scientists to do experimental research and testing ć The samples of water have been sent to the laboratory for testing. í adjective referring to laboratories ć The new drug has passed its laboratory tests. laboratory laboratory technique technique noun a method or skill needed to perform experiments in a laboratory lactation lactation noun the production of milk as food for young lacustrine lacustrine adjective referring to a lake or pond lag lag verb 1. to cover something with an insulating material to protect against cold or to stop heat escaping ć Boilers and pipes should be carefully lagged to prevent heat loss. 2. to be slower or not as advanced ć Public opinion sometimes lags behind scientific discoveries. í noun a delay ć a time lag ć a lag in supply lagging lagging noun the material used to insulate pipes lagoon lagoon noun a shallow part of the sea in the tropics, surrounded or almost surrounded by reefs. ı saline lagoon, sewage la-
goon
lagoonal lagoonal adjective referring to lagoons lagooning lagooning noun the creation of artificial lakes for purifying sewage lake lake noun 1. a large area of fresh water surrounded by land 2. a large quantity of liquid produce stored because of overproduction (informal) ć a wine lake ć a milk lake ı mountain lake lake bloom bloom noun a mass of algae which develops rapidly in a lake due to eutrophication
land land noun the solid part of the Earth’s surface ˽ back to the land encouragement given to people who once lived in the country and moved to urban areas to return to the countryside ˽ land under cultivation land which is being cultivated or which has crops growing on it ć The area under rice cultivation has grown steadily in the past
40–50 years. land land burial burial noun same as land disposal land land clearance clearance noun the removal of trees or undergrowth in preparation for ploughing or building land land disposal disposal noun the act of depositing waste in a hole in the ground. Also called land burial land erosion land erosion control control noun a method of preventing the soil from being worn away by irrigation, planting or mulching landfill landfill noun 1. the disposal of waste by putting it into holes in the ground and covering it with earth 2. same as landfill site landfill landfill gas gas noun a gas produced by the decomposition of rubbish in a landfill site, e.g. methane landfilling landfilling noun the practice of disposing of waste by putting it into holes in the ground and covering it with earth landfill landfill site site noun an area of land where waste is put into holes in the ground and covered with earth ć The council has decided to use the old gravel pits as a landfill site. ć Landfill sites can leak pollutants into the ground water. ć Landfill sites, if properly constructed, can be used to provide gas for fuel. Also called landfill landfill landfill tax tax noun a tax on every metric ton of waste put in a landfill site instead of being recycled that is paid by companies and local councils landlocked landlocked adjective referring to a place that has no sea coast ć a landlocked country in central Africa land land management management noun the use and maintenance of land according to a set of principles for a particular purpose such as the cultivation of crops or recreational activities land land manager manager noun someone who is responsible for the condition of land, e.g. a farmer or landowner
123
law
landmass landmass noun a large area of land ć the
continental landmass of the USA
landrace landrace noun a local variety of plant or
animal developed over many thousands of
years by farmers selecting for favourable
characteristics within a species
land land reclamation reclamation, land restoration
noun the process of bringing back into pro-
ductive use a piece of land such as a site
that was formerly used for an industrial
process
Landsat Landsat noun a US satellite belonging to
a set which scan the land surface of the
Earth, particularly the vegetation cover
landscape landscape noun the scenery, general
shape, structure and features of the surface
of an area of land
landscape assessment landscape assessment
, landscape
character assessment noun the analysis,
description and classification of an area of
land, noting the features that contribute to
its special character and developing appro-
priate proposals for its future conservation
and management
landscape landscape design design, landscape plan-
ning, landscaping noun a plan of how to
lay out an artificial landscape, including
where to plant trees and shrubs
landscape landscape ecology ecology noun the study of
the ecology of an area and how it affects the
landscape
landscape landscape manager manager noun somebody
such as a farmer or landowner who is re-
sponsible for the way land is used and
looked after
landscape landscape value value noun the degree to
which an area is seen as attractive and of
benefit to society in general ć The land-
scape value of new woodlands is high in ar-
eas where loss of hedges and trees by dis-
ease or deliberate policy took place in the
past.
landslide landslide
,
landslip
noun
a
sudden
fall
of
large amounts of soil and rocks down the
side of a mountain or of waste matter down
the side of a spoil heap
land land use use noun the way in which land is
used for different purposes such as farming
or recreation ć a survey of current land use
lapse lapse noun a short period of time which
separates two events
lapse lapse rate rate noun the rate at which temper-
ature changes according to altitude
larch larch noun a deciduous European soft-
wood tree that has cones. It is fast-growing
and used as a timber crop. Genus: Larix.
large-scale large-scale adjective big in size or exten-
sive in scope. Compare small-scale
larva larva noun the form of an insect or other
animal in the stage of development after the
egg has hatched but before the animal be-
comes adult (NOTE: The plural is larvae.)
larval larval adjective referring to larvae ć the
larval stage
latent latent adjective present but not yet devel-
oped
lateral lateral adjective referring to the side ć
lateral buds ć Drift is lateral movement
caused by wind.
laterisation laterisation
,
laterization
noun
the
proc-
ess of weathering tropical soil into hard la-
terite
laterise laterise
,
laterize
verb
to
weather
tropical
soil into hard laterite
laterite laterite noun a hard rock-like clay found
in the tropics, formed when latosol dries
out (NOTE: When tropical rainforests are
cleared, the soil beneath rapidly turns to la-
terite as nutrients are leached out by rain
and the land cannot be cultivated.)
lateritic lateritic adjective referring to soil that
contains laterite
late successional plant late successional plant
noun a plant
that grows slowly to a large size, tolerates
shade and is competitive towards other
plants, e.g. a hardwood tree (NOTE: Such
trees form a climax community.)
latex latex noun a white fluid from a plant such
as poppy, dandelion or rubber tree
latitude latitude noun an angular distance north or
south of the Earth’s equator, measured in
degrees, minutes and seconds, along a me-
ridian ć Parallels of latitude are imaginary
circles on the surface of the Earth, their
planes being parallel to the plane of the
equator. ˽ at a latitude of 46°N at a posi-
tion on the Earth’s surface which is 46 de-
grees north of the equator
latosol latosol noun a type of reddish soft soil
found in tropical areas that is characterised
by deep weathering and hydrous oxide ma-
terial
launch launch noun the start of a planned activity
ć the launch of their public awareness
campaign í verb to begin a planned activi-
ty, especially by announcing it publicly ć
to launch a new research initiative
lava lava noun molten rock and minerals which
flow from an erupting volcano and solidify
into various types of igneous rock
law law noun 1. a rule or set of rules by which a country is governed ˽ under British,
French, etc., law according to British,
French, etc., law 2. a basic principle of sci-
ence or mathematics
lawrencium
124
lawrencium lawrencium noun a chemical element
(NOTE: The chemical symbol is Lr; the
atomic number is 103 and the atomic
weight is 256.)
layer layer noun 1. a flat area of a substance un-
der or over another area (NOTE: In geologi-
cal formations, layers of rock are called
strata; layers of soil are called horizons.)
2. a stem of a plant which has made roots
where it touches the soil í verb to propa-
gate a plant by bending a stem down until it
touches the soil and letting it form roots
there
LC LC
50
abbr
lethal
concentration
50
LD LD
50
abbr
lethal
dose
50%
leach leach verb to be washed out of the soil by
water ć Excess chemical fertilisers on the
surface of the soil leach into rivers and
cause pollution. ć Nitrates have leached
into ground water and contaminated the
water supply.
leachate leachate noun 1. a substance which is
washed out of the soil 2. a liquid which
forms at the bottom of a landfill site
leaching leaching noun the process by which a
substance is washed out of the soil by water
passing through it
lead lead
1
noun
a
very
heavy
soft
metallic
ele-
ment (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Pb;
the atomic number is 82 and the atomic
weight is 207.20.)
lead lead
2
noun
an
electrical
wire
or
narrow
ca-
ble ć A lead connects the monitor to the
computer.
lead-acid lead-acid battery battery, lead-acid accumu-
lator noun a type of battery consisting of
lead and lead-oxide plates, surrounded by a
sulfuric acid electrolyte
leaded leaded petrol petrol noun petrol to which a
fuel additive such as tetraethyl lead has
been added to prevent knocking
lead-free lead-free adjective referring to something
such as paint or fuel which has no lead in it
ć lead-free petrol ć Lead-free fuel is used
in most modern piston engines.
lead lead poisoning poisoning noun poisoning caused
by taking in lead salts
lead replacement petrol lead replacement petrol
noun a lead-
free petrol for compulsory use in vehicles
that were designed to be used with leaded
petrol, introduced as a way of improving air
quality and protecting the environment
leaf leaf noun a structure growing from a plant
stem, with a stalk and a flat blade. It is usu-
ally green and carries out photosynthesis.
(NOTE: A leaf stalk is called a petiole, and a
leaf blade is called a lamina.)
LEAF LEAF noun an independent organisation that promotes better understanding of farming by the public and helps farmers improve the environment by combining the best traditional farming methods with modern technology. Full form Linking Envi-
ronment and Farming
leaf leaf cutting cutting noun a piece of a leaf, root or stem cut from a living plant and put in soil where it will sprout leaf leaf litter litter noun dead leaves lying on the floor of a forest. Also called litter leaf leaf mould mould noun a soft fibrous material formed of decomposed leaves leak leak noun an escape of liquid or gas from a sealed container ć a gas leak í verb (of liquid or gas) to escape from a sealed container ć Fuel may leak from a fuel tank if the drain plug is not seated correctly. leakage leakage noun the process of a gas or liquid leaking out of a container ć Any internal or external leakage of fuel will cause a
reduction in the operating period. leak leak rate rate noun the speed at which a liquid or gas escapes from a sealed container lean-burn lean-burn engine engine noun a type of internal combustion engine adapted to use less fuel than other engines, and so release less carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere LED LED abbr light-emitting diode lee lee noun the side of something which is protected from the wind ć The trees in the
lee of the hill grow better than those on the
windward side. ˽ on the lee side on the
side away from the wind leeward leeward adjective protected from the wind leg leg noun a part of the body with which a person or animal walks and stands legionnaires’ legionnaires’ disease disease noun a bacterial disease similar to pneumonia (NOTE: The bacteria develop in warm, moist areas such as air-conditioning systems and are trans-
mitted through droplets of moisture in the air, often affecting many people at once.)
legislation legislation noun the laws by which a country is governed legislative legislative body body noun a group of people who make laws for a country legume legume noun a member of the plant family that produces seeds in pods, e.g. peas and beans. Family: Leguminosae.
COMMENT: There are many species of legume, including trees, and some are particularly valuable because they have root nodules that contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Such legumes have special value in maintaining soil fertility and are used in
125
lifetime
crop rotation. Peas, beans, clover and vetch are all legumes.
Leguminosae Leguminosae noun a family of plants including peas and beans, that produce seeds in pods leguminous leguminous adjective referring to a legume leguminous leguminous plant plant noun a plant that is a legume leisure leisure noun free time that can be used for relaxation, entertainment or sport leisure leisure centre centre noun a place that provides equipment and resources for activities such as swimming or sport leisure leisure facilities facilities plural noun equipment and resources such as sports centres, swimming pools, parks or cinemas which can be used during free time leisure leisure visitor visitor noun someone who visits a place for pleasure ć The number of lei-
sure visitors to the area has increased. lek lek noun a small territory established by a male for breeding purposes lentic lentic adjective referring to stagnant water Lepidoptera Lepidoptera noun an order of insects that includes butterflies and moths lessen lessen verb to make something less or to become less ć Clean filters lessen the possibility of blockage. lethal lethal adjective causing death ć These fumes are lethal if inhaled. lethal concentration lethal concentration 50 50 noun the concentration of a pollutant or effluent at which 50% of the test organisms die. Abbr LC50 lethal lethal dose 50% dose 50% noun the dose of a substance which will kill half the organisms which absorb it. Abbr LD50 LEV LEV abbr low-emission vehicle levee levee noun (in the USA) an embankment built up along the bank of a river to prevent flooding level level adjective having a flat, smooth surface í noun a relative amount, intensity or concentration ć an unsafe level of contamination ć reduced noise levels í verb 1. to make something become flat ć levelling the ground 2. to knock down and destroy something ć The developers levelled the
derelict buildings. ley ley noun a field in which crops are grown in rotation with periods when the field is sown with grass for pasture (NOTE: Leys are an essential part of organic farming.)
LH2 LH2 abbr liquid hydrogen LiLi symbol lithium liana liana noun a climbing plant found in tropical rainforests
lias lias noun a type of rock formation consist-
ing of shale and limestone
lice lice plural of louse
lichen lichen noun a complex of two organisms
growing in symbiosis, a fungus providing
the outer shell and an alga or a cyanobacte-
rium giving the organism its colour. Li-
chens are often found on the surface of
stones or trunks of trees. (NOTE: As they are
able to survive in cold or exposed condi-
tions, they provide food for many arctic an-
imals. Many lichens are very sensitive to
pollution, especially sulfur dioxide, and act
as indicators for atmospheric pollution.)
lidar lidar noun a device that uses pulses of la-
ser light to measure the distance between
an aircraft and the ground, used to produce
many reference points over an area of land
and allow the mapping of large areas such
as marshes and river networks to which ac-
cess might be difficult. Full form Light De-
tection and Ranging
life life noun 1. the time from birth to death ˽
adult life the time period during which a
person or other organism is an adult 2. a
state of active metabolism 3. the state or ex-
perience of being alive. ć Their lives were
put at risk by the contamination. 3. living
organisms ć bird life ć plant life
life life cycle cycle noun 1. all the changes an or-
ganism goes through between a specific
stage in its development and the same stage
in the next generation 2. the process that a
product undergoes from manufacture to
disposal
life cycle life cycle analysis analysis noun a review of a
product from manufacture to final disposal
in order to assess its full impact on the en-
vironment
life life form form noun a living thing, e.g. a plant,
animal or microorganism
life life span span noun the length of time that an
organism lives or a product is useful ć
Some insects have a life span of only one
day.
lifestyle lifestyle noun the way in which a person
or group of people live their daily lives, in-
cluding habits, behaviour and activities
lifestyle farmland buyer lifestyle farmland buyer
noun a pur-
chaser of farmland for leisure or investment
purposes rather than as a working farmer
life life system system noun a part of an ecosystem
which is formed of a living organism and
the parts of the environment which support
it
lifetime lifetime noun 1. the time during which an
organism is alive ć Humans consume tons
of sugar in a lifetime. 2. the approximate
life zone
126
time it would take for the part of an atmospheric pollutant concentration created by humans to return to its natural level assuming emissions cease ć Average lifetimes range from about a week for products such as sulfate aerosols to more than a century for CFCs and carbon dioxide. Also called atmospheric lifetime 3. a period of time during which a device is useful or not outdated ć This new computer has a four-year lifetime.
life life zone zone noun a place or area in which the type and number of organisms differ slightly from neighbouring areas because of variations in environmental conditions
light light noun 1. brightness produced by the Sun, the Moon or a lamp 2. electromagnetic radiation which can be sensed by the eyes í adjective 1. bright because the sun is shining ć a light room ć At six o’clock in the morning it was just getting light. 2. without much weight ć Aluminium is a light metal.
light-emitting light-emitting diode diode noun a semiconductor diode that emits light when a current is applied, used in clock and calculator displays and as an indicator. Abbr LED
lightning lightning noun a discharge of electricity between clouds and the Earth, seen as a bright flash and accompanied by the sound of thunder which is heard after a short delay
light light pollution pollution noun the effect of street or other artificial lighting which makes the sky red or orange at night, and so reduces the visibility of stars
light water light water reactor reactor noun a nuclear reactor which uses ordinary water as a coolant. Abbr LWR
light light wave wave noun 1. a visible wave of electromagnetic radiation that travels from a source of light and is capable of stimulating the retina 2. any wave of electromagnetic radiation, including ultraviolet and infrared
lignin lignin noun the material in plant cell walls that makes plants woody and gives them rigidity and strength
lignite lignite noun a type of soft coal with a low carbon content limb limb noun 1. a leg or arm ˽ lower limbs legs ˽ upper limbs arms 2. a main branch of a tree
lime lime noun 1. calcium oxide made from burnt limestone, used to spread on soil to reduce acidity and add calcium 2. a hardwood tree. Genus: Tilia. 3. a citrus fruit tree, with green fruit similar to, but smaller than, lemons. Latin name: Citrus aurantifo-
lia. í verb to treat acid soil by spreading lime on it limestone limestone noun a common sedimentary rock, formed of calcium minerals and often containing fossilised shells of sea animals. It is porous in its natural state and may form large caves by being weathered by water. It is used in agriculture and building. ć carboniferous limestone limestone limestone pavement pavement noun an area of outcrops of rock where the surface has been dissolved by water over millions of years into blocks, giving it the appearance of a street pavement. Some rare plants live on limestone pavements. lime lime treatment treatment noun same as liming limewater limewater noun a solution of calcium hydroxide in water liming liming noun the spreading of lime on soil to reduce acidity and add calcium. Also called lime treatment limit limit noun a furthest point or place beyond which you cannot go ć They have set a strict limit on the amount of fish which foreign fishing boats are allowed to catch. í verb to set a limit on something ć The government has limited the number of barrels
of oil to be extracted each day. limiting limiting factor factor noun something that is essential for a chemical reaction to take place and which prevents the reaction or limits its rate of occurrence if it is not present ć Oxygen is a limiting factor for combustion. limiting limiting factor principle factor principle noun a general rule that too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent the growth of a population limiting limiting similarity similarity noun the extent of niche differentiation required for species to coexist limn- limn- prefix fresh water limnetic limnetic adjective referring to deep fresh water limnic limnic adjective referring to deposits in fresh water limnology limnology noun the study of river systems and their ecology lindane lindane noun an organochlorine pesticide. It is a persistent organic pollutant and has been banned for all agricultural uses in the European Union. Formula: C6H6Cl6. line line verb to cover the inside of a container to prevent the contents escaping ć Landfill sites may be lined with nylon to prevent
leaks of dangerous liquids. lined lined landfill landfill noun a hole in the ground covered on the inside with nylon sheets to
127
litter
prevent leaks of dangerous liquids from
waste deposited there
line of line of latitude latitude noun an imaginary line
running round the Earth, linking points at
an equal distance from the equator
liner liner noun material used to line some-
thing, e.g. a sheet or bag of nylon or plastic
line line squall squall noun a series of thunder-
storms advancing in a line
link link noun a connection between two things
ć proved a link between smoking and lung
cancer í verb to be related to or associated
with something ć Health is linked to diet or
Health and diet are linked.
linkage linkage noun the process of two or more
genes situated close together on a chromo-
some being inherited together
Linnaean Linnaean system system noun the scientific
system of naming organisms devised by the
Swedish scientist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–
78). See Comment at binomial classifica-
tion (NOTE: Carl von Linné is another form
of his name.)
linoleic linoleic acid acid noun one of the two essen-
tial fatty acids which cannot be produced in
the body by humans and has to be taken in
from food such as vegetable oil. Formula:
C18H32O2. linolenic linolenic acid acid noun one of the two es-
sential fatty acids which cannot be pro-
duced in the body by humans and has to be
taken in from food such as vegetable oil.
Formula: C25H30O2. (NOTE: Linolenic acid is also used in paints and in synthetic resin
manufacture.)
lipid lipid noun an organic compound belong-
ing to a group of compounds that are not
water-soluble and include animal fat, plant
oils and waxes
liposoluble liposoluble adjective referring to a sub-
stance that can be dissolved in fat
liquefaction liquefaction noun the process of making
a solid or gas into liquid
liquefied liquefied natural gas natural gas noun a natural
gas, extracted from under ground, that is
cooled and transported in containers. Abbr
LNG
liquefied petroleum gas liquefied petroleum gas
noun pro-
pane or butane or a combination of both
produced by refining crude petroleum oil.
Abbr LPG (NOTE: Liquefied petroleum gas
is used for domestic heating and cooking
and for powering vehicles.)
liquefy liquefy verb to make a gas into liquid or to
become liquid
liquid liquid noun a substance with a consisten-
cy like water ć Water is a liquid, ice is a
solid.
liquid liquid fertiliser fertiliser noun a solution of a sol-
id fertiliser
liquid liquid hydrogen hydrogen noun an alternative
fuel proposed for use in cars and aircraft.
Abbr LH2
list list noun a set of short pieces of informa-
tion, each one given on a separate line ć a
list of endangered species
listeria listeria noun a bacterium found in human
and animal faeces, one species of which
can cause meningitis if ingested in contam-
inated food. Genus: Listeria.
List of Chemicals of Concern List of Chemicals of Concern
noun
a list of chemicals believed to be produced
or used in the UK in substantial amounts
which meet specific criteria for concern re-
lating to risks to the environment and hu-
man health on the basis of information cur-
rently available. The list is drawn up by the
UK Chemicals Stakeholder Forum and is
intended for discussion and input.
liter liter noun US spelling of litre
lith- lith- prefix stone
lithium lithium noun a soft silvery metallic ele-
ment, the lightest known metal, used in bat-
teries (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Li; the
atomic number is 3 and the atomic weight
is 6.94.)
lithosere lithosere noun a succession of communi-
ties growing on rock
lithosol lithosol noun soil which forms on the sur-
face of rock, with no clearly different layers
lithosphere lithosphere noun 1. the Earth’s solid sur-
face, together with the molten interior
above the core 2. the solid surface of the
Earth which lies above the asthenosphere
lithospheric lithospheric adjective referring to the
lithosphere
litmus litmus noun a dye obtained from lichens
which is used to make litmus paper
litmus litmus paper paper noun paper treated with lit-
mus, used in tests for acidity (NOTE: The pa-
per becomes red when the pH falls below 7,
indicating acid, and becomes blue when
the pH is above 7, indicating alkaline.)
litre litre noun a measure of capacity equal to
1000 cc or 1.76 pints. Symbol l, L (NOTE: It
is the volume of one kilogram of water at
4° C.)
litter litter noun 1. rubbish left by people 2. a
group of young mammals born to one
mother at the same time ć The sow had a
litter of ten piglets. 3. bedding for livestock
ć Straw is the best type of litter. 4. same as
leaf litter í verb 1. to lie all over the place
ć The valley is littered with huge boulders.
2. to leave rubbish in a place 3. to give birth
ć Bears litter in early spring.
litter basket
128
litter litter basket basket, litter bin noun a container in a public place in which rubbish is thrown away littoral littoral adjective 1. referring to a coast 2. same as intertidal í noun a coast littoral littoral zone zone noun 1. an area of water at the edge of a lake where plants grow 2. an area of the sea and shore between the high and low water marks live live adjective 1. (of an organism) carrying out metabolism 2. (of cables) carrying electricity 3. (of a volcano) erupting from time to time 4. in active use í verb to be or remain alive live live off off verb to exist by eating something ć These fish live off the debris which sinks
to the bottom of the lake. live live on on verb 1. to exist by eating something ć Most apes live on berries and roots. 2. to exist on the surface of something ć Lice live on the skin of their host. livestock livestock noun cattle and other farm animals which are reared to produce meat, milk or other products ć Livestock production has increased by 5%. living living environment environment noun the part of the environment made up of living organisms LLW LLW abbr low-level waste LNG LNG abbr liquefied natural gas load load noun 1. something that is loaded or transported 2. the power output of an electrical generator or power plant 3. the amount of something that a vehicle can carry or a machine can deal with at one time í verb 1. to put something that is to be transported onto a vehicle or other means of transport 2. to put something into a container or piece of equipment ready for use load load up up verb same as load loam loam noun dark soil, with medium-sized grains of sand, which crumbles easily and is very fertile loamy loamy adjective referring to soil that is dark, crumbly and fertile lobby lobby noun a group of people trying to influence the opinions of politicians, local officials and businessmen on a particular issue
ć the road lobby ć a green lobby group í verb to ask someone such as a politician or local official to do something on somebody’s behalf ć They lobbied their MP about the plan to build houses on the Green Belt. lobby lobby group group noun same as lobby lobbyist lobbyist noun a person who is paid by a lobby group to act on the group’s behalf lobe lobe noun a rounded part of a divided leaf local local adjective referring to a particular area
local local authority authority noun an official body that is responsible for public services in a specific area of a country local local government government noun government of a specific area of a country by locally elected politicians
location location noun 1. a place where something can be found 2. the process of finding where something is
loch loch noun (in Scotland) a lake
locomotion locomotion noun movement or travel from one place to another locus locus noun the position of a gene on a chromosome (NOTE: The plural is loci.) locust locust noun a flying insect which occurs in subtropical areas, flies in large groups and eats large amounts of vegetation
lode lode noun a deposit of metallic ore loess loess noun a fine fertile soil formed of tiny clay and silt particles deposited by the wind
log log noun 1. a full record of a set of actions or events 2. a large piece of wood cut from the trunk or from a main branch of a tree í verb 1. to keep a full record of a set of actions or events 2. to cut down trees for their wood as a commercial activity logger logger noun a person whose job is to cut down trees logging logging noun the commercial activity of cutting down trees long-day long-day plant plant noun a plant that flowers as the days get longer in the spring. Compare short-day plant long-grass long-grass prairie prairie noun an area in the east of the North American prairies where mainly varieties of tall grasses grow. Also called tall-grass prairie longitude longitude noun an angular distance on the Earth’s surface, measured east or west from the prime meridian to the meridian passing through a position, expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds
COMMENT: Longitude is measured from Greenwich, just east of London, and, together with latitude, is used to indicate an exact position on the Earth’s surface. Longitude is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds. The centre of London is latitude 51°30’N, longitude 0°5’W
longline longline noun a very long fishing line, which stretches for miles and is baited with many hooks (NOTE: Longlines are a prob-
lem in that they catch all types of fish, some of which are not of commercial interest, and even dolphins)
long-lived long-lived adjective referring to an animal or plant that lives for a long time
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lysis
long-range long-range adjective referring to a weather forecast that covers a period more than five days ahead
longshore longshore adjective referring to a current which flows along the length of a shore
long-term long-term adjective lasting for a long time ć the long-term effects of grazing
long long ton ton noun same as ton 1
looping looping noun a situation in which a column of smoke from a tall chimney is brought down to ground level by air currents and then rises again
loss loss noun the state of not having something any more, or of having less of something ć loss of control ć the loss of natural habitats ć loss of amenity value ć hearing loss from noisy working conditions
lotic lotic adjective referring to ecological communities that live in water that flows quickly
Lotka-Volterra predator-prey mod- Lotka-Volterra predator-prey model el noun a simple mathematical model representing the interaction between predators and their prey
lough lough noun (in Ireland) a lake
louse louse noun a small wingless insect that sucks blood and lives on the skin as a parasite on animals and humans. There are several types, the commonest being body louse, crab louse and head louse. Some diseases can be transmitted by lice. Genus: Pediculus. (NOTE: The plural is lice.)
low low adjective near the bottom or towards the bottom í noun same as depression 1 ć A series of lows are crossing the North Atlantic towards Ireland.
low-emission low-emission vehicle vehicle noun a vehicle which does not emit much pollution when compared to vehicles with conventional internal combustion engines. Abbr LEV
lower lower verb 1. to put something in a lower position ć lower the barrier 2. to reduce something in amount or intensity ć lowered the temperature ć lower the pressure
lower lower plants plants plural noun organisms traditionally classed as plants but which do not have a vascular system, e.g. mosses
low-grade low-grade adjective not of high quality
low input low input farming farming, lower input farming noun a system of farming based on restricted use of chemical fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides
lowland lowland noun an area of low-lying land as opposed to hills and mountains or highlands
low-level radioactive waste low-level radioactive waste
, low-
level waste noun waste which is only slightly radioactive and does not cause problems for disposal
low production volume chemical low production volume chemical
noun a chemical of which 10–1000 tonnes is sold per year per manufacturer or importer
low low tide tide noun the point when the sea level at the coast is lowest
low-waste low-waste technology technology noun efficient technology which produces little waste
LPG LPG abbr liquefied petroleum gas
LPV LPV chemical chemical abbr low production volume chemical
Lr Lr symbol lawrencium
lucerne lucerne noun a perennial, drought-resistant, leguminous plant that is rich in protein. It is mainly used either for green feed for animals or for hay or silage. Latin name: Medicago sativa. (NOTE: The US name is
alfalfa.)
lumber lumber noun (in the USA and Canada)
trees which have been cut down
lumberjack lumberjack noun (in the USA and Cana-
da) a person whose job is to cut down trees
lunar lunar adjective referring to the moon
lunar lunar eclipse eclipse noun a situation when the Earth passes between the Sun and the Moon causing the shadow of the Earth to fall across the Moon, so cutting off its light. Compare solar eclipse
lunar lunar phase phase noun a change in the appearance of the Moon as it moves from new to full and back again every 29 days (NOTE:
The phases are: new moon, first quarter,
full moon and last quarter.)
lung lung noun the organ of respiration of ver-
tebrates that breathe air
lush lush adjective referring to vegetation which is thick and green ć Lush tropical
vegetation rapidly covered the clearing.
lux lux noun an SI unit of brightness of light shining on a surface. Symbol lx
LWR LWR abbr light water reactor
lyophilise lyophilise verb to preserve food by freezing it rapidly and drying in a vacuum
lysimeter lysimeter noun a device used for measuring the rate of drainage of water through soil and the soluble particles removed in the process
lysis lysis noun the destruction of a cell by disrupting its outer membrane, allowing the cell contents to escape
M
mm symbol milliMM symbol megaMAB MAB abbr Man and the Biosphere Programme MAC MAC abbr maximum allowable concentration mackerel mackerel sky sky noun a pattern of wavy cirrocumulus or altocumulus cloud with holes which looks like the body markings of mackerel fish macro- macro- prefix large. Opposite micromacrobenthos macrobenthos noun plants or animals living at the bottom of a lake or the sea whose shortest dimension is equal to or more than 0.5 mm macrobiotic macrobiotic adjective referring to a vegetarian diet without artificial additives or preservatives ć a macrobiotic diet macrobiotics macrobiotics noun a dietary system based on vegetarian foods without artificial additives or preservatives, especially organically grown whole grains, fruit and vegetables macroclimate macroclimate noun the climate over a large area such as a region or country. ı
mesoclimate, microclimate
macronutrient macronutrient noun a nutrient that an organism uses in very large quantities, e.g. oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron macroparasite macroparasite noun a parasite which lives on or inside the body of the host but does not multiply, e.g. a worm or insect larva macrophyte macrophyte noun a plant that is large enough to be studied without the aid of a microscope macroplankton macroplankton plural noun plankton of about 1mm in length macroscopic macroscopic adjective referring to an object or organism that can be seen without the aid of a microscope mad mad cow disease cow disease same as BSE
(informal )
magma magma noun a molten substance in the Earth’s mantle, which escapes as lava during volcanic eruptions and solidifies to form igneous rocks magmatic magmatic adjective referring to magma
magnesium magnesium noun a light, silvery-white metallic element that burns with a brilliant white flame (NOTE: It is also found in green
vegetables and is essential especially for
the correct functioning of human muscles. The chemical symbol is Mg; the atomic
number is 12 and the atomic weight is 24.31.)
magnet magnet noun an object that produces a magnetic field and attracts iron and steel magnetic magnetic adjective referring to a magnet or a magnetic field magnetic magnetic field field noun an area round an object that is under the influence of its magnetic effect ć The Earth’s magnetic field is concentrated round the two magnetic poles. magnetic magnetic pole pole noun one of the two poles of the Earth, near to but not identical with the geographical poles, which are the centres of the Earth’s magnetic field and to which a compass points. Also called geo-
magnetic pole
magnetosphere magnetosphere noun a region surrounding the Earth, extending from about 500 to several thousand kilometres above the surface, in which charged particles are controlled by the Earth’s magnetic field magnification magnification noun a measure of increase in size, especially in the apparent size of an image seen through a microscope magnox magnox power station power station noun a nuclear power station with a magnox reactor
COMMENT: The first magnox power station was built in the UK in 1956. The safety record has been very good, but magnox power stations are at the end of their commercial life and decommissioning began in 1990.
mahogany mahogany noun a tropical hardwood tree producing a dark timber, now becoming rare. Genus: especially: Swietenia. main main adjective the most important or principal mains mains noun a system of pipes or cables which bring gas, water or electricity to a house ć mains gas ć mains electricity maintain maintain verb to keep something at the same level or standard maintenance maintenance noun the action of keeping something at the same level or standard maize maize noun a tall cereal crop grown in warm climates, that carries its grains on a
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map
large solid core (cob) of which there are only one or two per plant. Latin name: Zea mays. (NOTE: The US term is corn.)
make make up water up water noun the water introduced into an irrigation or sewage system to replace water lost by leaking or evaporation
malaria malaria noun a tropical disease caused by the parasite Plasmodium which enters the body after a bite from a mosquito
malarial malarial adjective referring to malaria
malarious malarious adjective referring to a region where malaria occurs frequently
malathion malathion noun an organophosphorus insecticide used to kill aphids, mainly on flowers grown in glasshouses
male male adjective 1. referring to an animal that produces sperm 2. referring to a flower that produces pollen, or a plant that produces such flowers í noun a male animal or plant
malignant malignant melanoma melanoma noun a dark cancerous tumour that develops on the skin from a mole, caused by exposure to strong sunlight ć Cases of malignant melanoma could rise by between 5 and 7 per cent for each percentage decrease in ozone in the atmosphere.
malnutrition malnutrition noun 1. the effect of an inadequate or unhealthy diet 2. the state of not having enough to eat
mammal mammal noun an animal that gives birth to live young, secretes milk to feed them, keeps a constant body temperature and is covered with hair. Class: Mammalia.
man man noun 1. an adult male human being 2. all human beings considered in contrast to other animals ć Man is the only species to have made a global impact on the environment. ı humankind (NOTE: This use of
‘man’ is now regarded as inappropriate in many non-technical contexts.)
manage manage verb 1. to organise something or control the way in which something happens ć The department is in charge of managing land resources. 2. to succeed in doing something ć We managed to prevent further damage occurring.
managed managed forest forest, managed woodland noun a wood or a forest producing commercial timber that is controlled by cutting down, coppicing or planting trees
management management noun 1. the organised use of resources or materials 2. the people who control an organisation or business
manager manager noun a person who is in charge of an organisation or part of one
Man and the Biosphere Pro- Man and the Biosphere Programme gramme noun a programme of research and training organised by UNESCO to encourage the sensible use and conservation of the biosphere’s resources and to improve relationships between people and their environment. Abbr MAB mandible mandible noun a biting mouthpart in insects and other invertebrates manganese manganese noun a metallic trace element. It is essential for biological life and is also used in making steel. (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Mn; the atomic number is 25 and the atomic weight is 54.94.)
mangrove mangrove noun a salt-tolerant tropical shrub or tree that grows in areas such as river estuaries or tidal marshes that are covered by the sea at high tide mangrove mangrove forest forest noun a group of salttolerant tropical trees and shrubs growing in an area that is covered by the sea at high tide mangrove mangrove swamp swamp noun an area that is covered by the sea at high tide where mangroves grow manhole manhole noun a hole in a roadway or pavement leading to a shaft down which an inspector can go to look at the sewers man-made man-made adjective referring to an object made or an event caused by human beings mantle mantle noun a layer of the interior of the Earth, between the solid crust and the core, formed of magma manual manual noun a document or book containing instructions for doing something, especially carrying out a procedure or operating a machine í adjective carried out by someone without the help of a machine manufacture manufacture verb 1. to make a product using machines 2. to produce a chemical naturally ć Ozone is constantly being manufactured and destroyed by natural processes in the atmosphere. manufacturer manufacturer noun a person or company that produces machine-made products ć The company is a large manufacturer of farm machinery. manufacturing manufacturing noun the production of machine-made products for sale manure manure noun animal dung used as fertiliser (NOTE: In liquid form it is called ‘slurry’.) í verb to spread animal dung on land as fertiliser map map noun 1. a drawing that shows the location of geographical and urban features 2. a diagram showing the position of something such as stars in the sky or genes on
MAP
132
chromosomes í verb to make a map of a place or area
MAP MAP abbr Mediterranean Action Plan
maple maple noun a hardwood tree of northern temperate regions, some varieties of which produce sweet sap which is used for making sugar and syrup. Genus: Acer.
MAPPS MAPPS model model noun a global biological and geographical model that simulates the potential natural vegetation that will grow at any site in the world. Full form mapped
atmosphere–plant–soil model
maquis maquis noun in the Mediterranean area, shrubby vegetation, taller than garrigue, of evergreen shrubs and small trees with thick or spiny leaves
marble marble noun a form of limestone that has been metamorphosed, used especially in building and sculpture as it can be polished to give a flat shiny surface
margin margin noun 1. the edge of a place or thing ć the eastern margin of the continent ć unploughed strips at the margins of the fields ć a leaf margin 2. an amount by which an amount or estimate may be different from the one expected without it causing a problem. Also called margin of error 3. a blank space around a section of printed text
marginal marginal adjective 1. referring to areas of land such as field edges or banks beside roads which are at the edge of cultivated land 2. referring to a plant which grows at the edge of two types of habitat ć marginal pond plants such as irises 3. referring to land of poor quality which results from bad physical conditions such as poor soil, high rainfall or steep slopes, and where farming is often difficult ć Cultivating marginal areas can lead to erosion. 4. situated in the spaces around a section of printed text ć marginal notes
mariculture mariculture noun the breeding and keeping of sea fish or shellfish for food in seawater enclosures
marine marine adjective 1. referring to the sea ć seals and other marine mammals 2. an animal or plant which lives in the sea
marine marine biocoenosis biocoenosis noun a varied community of organisms living in the sea
marine marine biology biology noun the scientific study of sea life
marine marine disposal disposal noun the depositing of waste at sea
marine marine ecology ecology noun the study of the relationship between organisms that live in the sea and their environment
marine marine environment environment noun the areas of the world usually covered by or containing sea water, including seas and oceans, river estuaries, and coasts and beaches marine marine fauna fauna noun the animals that live in the sea marine marine flora flora noun the plants that live in the sea marine marine habitat habitat noun an area of sea coast, including features such as beaches, cliffs, salt marshes, dunes or mangrove swamps marine marine park park noun a natural park created on the bottom of the sea where visitors can go into observation chambers to look at the fish and plant life. Compare oceanarium marine marine pollution pollution noun the harmful effects of human activities such as disposal of waste into the sea on marine organisms and their environment, with resulting hazards to human food and health maritime maritime climate climate noun a climate that is modified by the influence of the sea, giving mild winters and warm summers, but with high rainfall marked marked adjective clear and definite ć marked changes in climatic conditions marker marker noun same as genetic marker market market garden garden noun a place for the commercial cultivation of plants, usually vegetables, soft fruit, salad crops and flowers, found near a large urban centre which provides a steady outlet for the sale of its produce marl marl noun a fine soil formed of a mixture of clay and lime, used for making bricks MARPOL MARPOL Convention Convention noun the main international agreement for the prevention of pollution of the sea by ships, either accidentally or deliberately. Full form Conven-
tion for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships
marram marram grass grass noun a type of grass planted on sand dunes to prevent them being spread by the wind. Latin name: Ammophila arenaria. MARS MARS noun a computer network used by member countries of the EU and OECD for reporting and exchanging information on serious industrial accidents in a standard format. Full form Major Accident Report-
ing System
marsh marsh noun an area of permanently wet land and the plants that grow on it (NOTE:
Marshes may be fresh water or salt water
and tidal or non-tidal. A marsh usually has a soil base, as opposed to a bog or fen, which is composed of peat.)
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meat
marsh marsh gas gas noun same as methane
marshland marshland noun land that is covered
with marsh
marshy marshy adjective referring to land that is
permanently wet
marsupial marsupial noun a mammal with a pouch
in which its young are carried, e.g. Austral-
ian kangaroos and wallabies or South
American opossums (NOTE: Marsupials
give birth to young at a much earlier stage
of development than other mammals so
that the young need to be protected in the
mother’s pouch for some months until they
become able to look after themselves.)
mass mass noun 1. a body of matter 2. a large
quantity or large number
mass mass extinction extinction noun the disappear-
ance of numerous species in a short period
by a force of nature such as climate change
or a volcanic eruption ć It has been sug-
gested that the mass extinction of the dino-
saurs 65 million years ago may have been
caused by the impact of a comet or meteor-
ite.
mast mast noun 1. a vertical pole for a flag or
antenna ć Ice accretes on the leading edge
of the detector mast. 2. the small hard fruits
that have fallen from a beech tree
mate mate noun an animal that reproduces sex-
ually with another í verb to reproduce sex-
ually with another of same species
material material noun 1. a substance with a par-
ticular quality or used for a specific pur-
pose ć waste material ć construction ma-
terials 2. cloth
matter matter noun a physical substance ć or-
ganic matter
maturation maturation noun the process of becom-
ing mature or fully developed
maturation maturation lagoon lagoon, maturation pond
noun a pond used in the final stages of sew-
age treatment
mature mature adjective referring to something
that is fully developed í verb to become
fully developed
maturing maturing adjective referring to some-
thing that is in the process of becoming ma-
ture
maturity maturity noun the state of being fully de-
veloped
Mauna Mauna Loa Loa noun a volcano on the island
of Hawaii where scientists have maintained
the longest continuous collection of relia-
ble daily atmospheric records
maximise maximise
,
maximize
verb
to
make
something as large as possible. Opposite
minimise
maximum maximum adjective referring to the
greatest possible ć maximum effect ć The
maximum capacity of the vehicle is 12. Op-
posite minimum
maximum allowable concentration maximum allowable concentration
noun the largest amount of a pollutant with
which workers are allowed to be in contact
in their work environment. Abbr MAC
maximum–minimum thermometer maximum–minimum thermometer
noun a thermometer that shows the highest
and lowest temperatures reached since it
was last checked, as well as the current
temperature
maximum permissible dose maximum permissible dose
noun
the highest amount of radiation to which a
person may safely be exposed
maximum permissible level maximum permissible level
noun
the highest amount of radiation that is al-
lowed to be present in an environment
maximum residue level maximum residue level
noun the
maximum amount of a pesticide that can
remain in crops or foodstuffs under Euro-
pean Union regulations. Abbr MRL
MCPA MCPA noun a herbicide that kills the most
persistent broad-leaved weeds: nettle, but-
tercups, charlock, dock seedlings, plantains
and thistles. Full form 2-methyl-4chloro-
phenoxy-acetic acid
MCPP MCPP abbr mecoprop
meadow meadow noun a field of grass and wild
plants, sometimes grown for fodder. ı wa-
ter meadow
mean mean adjective referring to an arithmetic
mean ć mean daytime temperatures í
noun same as arithmetic mean
meander meander noun a large bend in the course
of a river as it nears the sea í verb (of a
river) to follow a winding course
mean mean lethal dose lethal dose noun the dose of a
substance that will kill half the organisms
which absorb it
means means noun a way of doing something
that brings a result ć Turning down the cen-
tral heating temperature by one or two de-
grees is a means of saving energy.
mean mean sea level sea level noun the level of the sea,
measured relative to points on land, with
wave movements and tide changes aver-
aged out over a period of time ć Altitude is
the vertical distance between a specific
point and mean sea level. Abbr MSL
mean mean temperature temperature noun an average
temperature ć The mean temperature for
July in this area is 25 °C.
meat meat noun animal flesh that is eaten as
food
mechanical treatment
134
mechanical treatment mechanical treatment
noun the
processing of sewage by mechanical means
such as agitating or stirring
mechanism mechanism noun 1. a machine or part of
a machine 2. a method of achieving some-
thing ć a mechanism for receiving feed-
back from consumers
mecoprop mecoprop noun a commonly used herbi-
cide, mostly used to control weeds in cereal
and grass crops, that is found as a contami-
nant of water. Abbr MCPP
media media plural of medium
medicinal medicinal adjective referring to a sub-
stance or plant that has healing properties
medicinally medicinally adverb in the treatment of
disease ć The herb can be used medicinal-
ly.
medicine medicine noun 1. a drug or preparation
taken to treat a disease or condition 2. the
study of diseases and how to cure or pre-
vent them
Mediterranean Action Plan Mediterranean Action Plan
noun an
agreement to protect the environment and
encourage sustainable development in the
Mediterranean area established by the Eu-
ropean Union and the countries bordering
the Mediterranean Sea. Abbr MAP
medium medium adjective middle or average í
noun 1. a substance through which some-
thing else is transmitted or carried ć Tubes
convey the cooling medium. (NOTE: The plu-
ral is mediums or media.) 2. a substance in
which an organism lives or is grown
medulla medulla noun 1. the soft inner part of an
organ surrounded by the cortex 2. same as
pith
medullary medullary ray ray noun a band or sheet of
connective tissue between the pith and the
bark in the stems of some woody plants
mega- mega- prefix large. Opposite micro-
megadose megadose noun a large dose ć received
a megadose of radiation
megalo- megalo- prefix unusually large. Opposite
micro-
megalopolis megalopolis noun a group of several
small towns that grow to become one huge
urban area
megaplankton megaplankton plural noun large plank-
ton more than 20 cm in length
megawatt megawatt noun one million watts ć pow-
er plants with a capacity larger than 50
megawatts
megawatt-hour megawatt-hour noun a measurement of
power with respect to time (NOTE: One
megawatt-hour is equal to one megawatt
being used for a period of one hour.)
melanic melanic adjective being unusually dark in
appearance ć melanic moths
melanin melanin noun a dark pigment which gives colour to skin and hair melanism melanism noun a condition in which there are abnormal deposits of dark pigment on the skin of an animal melanoma melanoma noun ‘ malignant melano-
ma
melt melt verb 1. to heat a solid so that it becomes liquid ć The gradual rise in air temperature melted the glaciers. 2. (of solid) to become liquid after being heated ć The gradual rise in air temperature made the
glaciers melt. ı molten meltdown meltdown noun a point in an accident in a nuclear reactor at which the fuel overheats and the core melts while the nuclear reaction is still in progress meltwater meltwater noun water from melting ice, especially from a glacier or from winter snow member member noun an individual that belongs to a group ć Wheat is a member of the grass family. membrane membrane noun 1. a thin layer of tissue that lines or covers an organ ć mucous membranes in the nasal cavity 2. a thin layer of artificial material ć a waterproof membrane meniscus meniscus noun the curved surface of a narrow column of water Mercalli Mercalli ‘ Modified Mercalli scale mercury mercury noun a metal element that is liquid at room temperature. It is used in thermometers, barometers and electric batteries and is poisonous. Also called quicksilver (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Hg; the
atomic number is 80 and the atomic weight is 200.59.)
meridian meridian noun an imaginary circle on the Earth’s surface passing through the north and south geographic poles meridional meridional adjective referring to a meridian meridionality meridionality noun a phenomenon of air blowing from north to south or from south to north meristem meristem noun a plant tissue at the tips of stems and roots in which cells are actively dividing mes- mes- prefix same as meso- (NOTE: used
before vowels)
mesa mesa noun a high plateau in the southwest of the USA, with steep sides and a flat top mesarch mesarch adjective relating to the sequence of plant or animal communities (sere) that originates in a moist habitat mesh mesh size size noun the diameter of the holes in a net (NOTE: The mesh size of fishing
135
methanol
nets is used as a means of limiting catch-
es.)
mesic mesic adjective referring to an organism growing in or an environment characterised by moderate moisture meso- meso- prefix middle mesobenthos mesobenthos noun the animals or plants living on the seabed, 250–1000m below the surface mesoclimate mesoclimate noun the climate over a specific locality such as a hillside or valley, extending no more than a few kilometres in radius. ı macroclimate, microclimate mesohaline mesohaline adjective referring to water that contains a limited amount of salt mesopause mesopause noun a thin cold layer of the Earth’s atmosphere between the mesosphere and the thermosphere mesophyll mesophyll noun the tissue inside a leaf where photosynthesis takes place mesophyte mesophyte noun a plant that needs a standard amount of water to survive mesoplankton mesoplankton plural noun organisms that take the form of plankton for part of their life cycle mesosaprobic mesosaprobic adjective referring to an organism that can survive in moderately polluted water mesosphere mesosphere noun the zone of the Earth’s atmosphere between the stratosphere and the thermosphere (NOTE: It lies
50–80km above the surface, with the strat-
opause at the bottom and the mesopause at the top. The air temperature falls steadily
with increasing ascent through the mesosphere.)
mesotherm mesotherm noun a plant that grows in warm conditions mesotrophic mesotrophic adjective referring to water that contains a moderate amount of nutrients. Compare eutrophic, oligotrophic meta- meta- prefix 1. changing 2. following metabolic metabolic adjective referring to metabolism metabolise metabolise verb to break down or build up organic compounds by metabolism ć The liver metabolises proteins and carbohydrates. metabolism metabolism noun the chemical processes of breaking down or building up organic compounds in organisms metabolite metabolite noun a chemical produced as a result of metabolism metal metal noun an element or a compound that can conduct heat and electricity metaldehyde metaldehyde noun a substance used in the form of pellets to kill slugs and snails
metalimnion metalimnion noun the middle layer of water in a lake. Also called thermocline. Compare epilimnion, hypolimnion metallic metallic adjective 1. referring to metal ć metallic materials 2. referring to something that is like metal, especially in appearance metamorphic metamorphic adjective referring to rock that has changed because of external influences such as pressure from other rocks or temperature changes. ı igneous, sedimen-
tary
metamorphism metamorphism noun the process of forming metamorphic rock metamorphose metamorphose verb 1. (of an animal ) to change into another form 2. (of rock) to undergo metamorphism metamorphosis metamorphosis noun a process of change into a different form, especially the change of a larva into an adult insect metapopulation metapopulation noun a population belonging to a group of populations of the same species that exchange individuals through migration and recolonise sites in which other metapopulations have become extinct meteor meteor noun a solid body that enters the Earth’s atmosphere from outer space, usually burning up as it does so meteoric meteoric adjective referring to meteors meteorite meteorite noun a solid body that falls from outer space onto the Earth’s surface meteorological meteorological adjective referring to meteorology or to climate meteorologist meteorologist noun a person who studies, reports and forecasts the weather meteorology meteorology noun the scientific study of weather and weather conditions ć Terrestrial radiation plays an important part in
meteorology. meter meter noun 1. a device to measure a physical property such as current, rate of flow or air speed 2. US spelling of metre í verb to count or measure with a meter methanation methanation noun the process of converting a mixture into methane. Also called methanisation methane methane noun a colourless flammable gas produced naturally from rotting organic waste, as in landfill sites or animal excreta. Formula: CH4. (NOTE: It is also found in marshes (marsh gas) and coal mines (firedamp).)
methane methane converter converter noun a process that turns into a usable form the gas produced by rotting waste in a landfill site methanol methanol noun an alcohol manufactured from coal, natural gas or waste wood, which is used as a fuel or solvent. Formula:
methylated spirits
136
CH3OH. Also called methyl alcohol, wood alcohol
methylated methylated spirits spirits noun almost pure alcohol, with wood alcohol and colouring added methyl methyl isothiocyanate isothiocyanate noun a chemical compound used in the production of soil sterilants. Abbr MIC metre metre noun an SI unit of length ć The area is four metres by three. Symbol m
(NOTE: The US spelling is meter.)
metres metres per second per second noun a system of measuring speed ć One metre per second is equal to 2.2 miles per hour. Abbr m/s
(NOTE: It is often used to measure wind speed.)
metric metric system system noun a decimal measuring system, calculated in units of ten, e.g. the SI system metric metric ton ton noun same as tonne metropolis metropolis noun a very large town, usually the capital of a country metropolitan metropolitan adjective referring to a large town ć Smog covered the whole metropolitan area.
mg mg abbr milligram Mg Mg symbol magnesium MIC MIC abbr methyl isothiocyanate mica mica noun a silicate mineral that splits into thin transparent flakes. It is used as an insulator in electrical appliances. micro- micro- prefix very small. Opposite mac-
ro-, mega-, megalo-
microbe microbe noun a microorganism (NOTE:
Viruses, bacteria, protozoa and microscopic fungi are informally referred to as microbes.)
microbenthos microbenthos noun plants or animals living at the bottom of a lake or the sea whose shortest dimension is equal to or more than 0.1 mm microbial microbial adjective referring to microbes microbial microbial insecticide insecticide noun an insecticide based on fungal, bacterial or other microorganisms that are pathogens of insects, or their toxins, as a form of biological control, e.g. the fungus Verticillium lecanii controlling whitefly in glasshouses microbiological microbiological adjective referring to microbiology microbiologist microbiologist noun a scientist who specialises in the study of microorganisms microbiology microbiology noun the scientific study of microorganisms microclimate microclimate noun the climate over a very small area such as a pond, tree, field,
or even a leaf. ı macroclimate, mesoclimate microenvironment microenvironment noun same as microhabitat microfauna microfauna noun 1. very small animals which can only be seen with a microscope 2. the animals living in a microhabitat microgram microgram noun a unit of measurement of weight, equal to one millionth of a gram. Symbol µg microhabitat microhabitat noun a single small area such as the bark of a tree, where fauna and/or flora live. Also called microenvironment
micro-hydro micro-hydro system system noun a small system that uses water to produce electricity micrometer micrometer noun an instrument for taking very small measurements such as of the width or thickness of very thin pieces of tissue micrometre micrometre noun one thousandth of a millimetre. Symbol µm micronutrient micronutrient noun a nutrient which an organism uses in very small quantities, e.g. iron, zinc or copper microorganism microorganism noun an organism that can only be seen with a microscope. Compare microbe (NOTE: Viruses, bacteria,
protozoa and fungi are all forms of microor-
ganism.)
microparasite microparasite noun a parasite which multiplies inside the body of its host, e.g. a virus microplankton microplankton plural noun plankton in the size range 20–200 µm micropollutant micropollutant noun a pollutant which occurs in very small quantities microscope microscope noun a scientific instrument which makes very small objects appear larger ć The tissue was examined under the microscope. ć Under the microscope it was possible to see the chloroplasts.
COMMENT: In a light microscope the image is magnified by lenses. In an electron microscope the lenses are electromagnets and a beam of electrons is used instead of light, thereby achieving much greater magnifications.
microscopic microscopic adjective referring to something so small that it can only be seen through a microscope microscopy microscopy noun the science of the use of microscopes microtherm microtherm noun a plant which grows in cool regions mid- mid- prefix middle mid-latitude mid-latitude desert desert noun a desert situated between the tropics, e.g. the Gobi
137
mineral oil
Desert or the Turkestan Desert. Also called warm desert
midrib midrib noun the thick structure that runs along the middle of a leaf, providing for support and the movement of dissolved substances
migrant migrant noun an animal or bird that moves from one place to another according to the season. Compare nomad
migrate migrate verb 1. (of a bird or other animal ) to move from one place to another according to the season ć As winter approaches, the herds of deer migrate south. 2. to move to another place ć Waste materials may be allowed to migrate from landfill sites into the surrounding soil.
migration migration noun 1. the process of a bird or other animal moving from one place to another according to the season ć The islands lie along one of the main migration routes from Siberia to Australia. (NOTE: Birds such
as swallows breed in Northern Europe but fly south for the winter; fish such as salmon and eels spawn in one place, often a river, and then migrate to the sea.) 2. the process of moving from one place to another
migratory migratory adjective moving from one place to another according to the season ć Estuaries are important feeding grounds for migratory birds, and are also important for the passage of migratory fish such as salmon.
mildew mildew noun a disease caused by a fungus which produces a fine powdery film on the surface of an organism
mile mile noun an imperial measurement of distance, equal to 1.609km. Also called
statute mile (technical)
mileage mileage noun a distance measured in miles
mill mill noun a factory where a substance is crushed to make a powder, especially one for making flour from the dried grains of cereals í verb to crush a substance to make a powder
millet millet noun a cereal crop grown in many of the hot, dry regions of Africa and Asia, where it is a staple food. Genera: especially: Panicum or Eleusine. milli- milli- prefix one thousandth or 10-3. Symbol m
millibar millibar noun a unit of pressure equal to one thousandth of a bar or 100 Pa. Symbol
mbar (NOTE: This unit is often used in meteorology to express atmospheric pressure, standard atmospheric pressure at sea level being 1013.25 millibars.)
milligauss milligauss noun a unit of magnetic flux density ć A person living under a low-voltage power line is exposed to 20 milligauss of radiation. milligram milligram noun a unit of measurement of weight, equal to one thousandth of a gram. Abbr mg millilitre millilitre noun a unit of measurement of liquid equal to one thousandth of a litre. Abbr ml (NOTE: The US spelling is millilit-
er.)
millimetre millimetre noun a unit of measurement of length, equal to one thousandth of a metre. Abbr mm (NOTE: The US spelling is millim-
eter.)
milling milling noun 1. the process of crushing and grinding mineral ores to separate out the useful materials 2. the process of grinding cereal grains into flour million tonnes of coal equivalent million tonnes of coal equivalent noun a measure of energy from a source that is not coal. Abbr MTCE millisievert millisievert noun a unit of measurement of radiation. Abbr mSv millisievert/year millisievert/year noun a number of millisieverts per year millwheel millwheel noun a large wheel with wooden bars that is turned by the force of water mimic mimic noun an animal which imitates another ć Starlings are excellent mimics. í verb to imitate another animal ć The starling mimicked the call of the thrush. mimicry mimicry noun a situation where one animal imitates another, often to prevent itself from being attacked Minamata Minamata disease disease noun a form of mercury poisoning from eating polluted fish, first identified in Japan mine mine noun a hole dug in the ground to extract a mineral í verb to dig into the ground to extract a mineral mineral mineral noun an inorganic solid substance with a characteristic chemical composition that occurs naturally (NOTE: The
names of many minerals end with the suffix -ite.)
mineral mineral deposit deposit noun a deposit of rocks containing useful minerals mineralisation mineralisation noun the breaking down of organic waste into its inorganic chemical components mineral mineral nutrient nutrient noun an inorganic element other than carbon, hydrogen and oxygen that is absorbed by plants from the soil mineral mineral oil oil noun US oil which derives from petroleum and is made up of hydrocarbons (NOTE: The UK term is liquid par-
affin.)
minimal
138
minimal minimal adjective small in amount or im-
portance ć the minimal area for sampling
in which specimens of all species can be
found
minimisation minimisation noun the measures or
techniques that reduce something such as
the amount of waste generated during in-
dustrial production processes
minimise minimise
,
minimize
verb
to
make
some-
thing as small as possible ć We minimised
costs by cutting down the number of com-
ponents. Opposite maximise
minimum minimum adjective referring to the
smallest possible ć the minimum amount
required ć minimum requirements
minimum minimum lethal dose lethal dose noun the small-
est amount of a substance needed to kill an
organism
minimum minimum tillage tillage noun a method of
ploughing in which disturbance of the soil
does not affect the deeper layers. The ben-
efits are conservation of organic matter,
leading to a better soil structure and less
soil erosion, better soil biodiversity, and the
use of less energy; disadvantages include
the easier germination of grass seeds. Also
called min-till. ı no-till agriculture
minimum viable population minimum viable population
noun the
smallest population which will allow a spe-
cies to continue to exist and to avoid in-
breeding, usually taken to be about 300 in-
dividuals. Abbr MVP
mining subsidence area mining subsidence area
noun a re-
gion in which the ground has subsided be-
cause of mines being dug
minute minute adjective extremely small ć
minute hairs on leaves ć minute traces
mire mire noun an area of land saturated with
water
miscanthus miscanthus noun a plant related to sugar
cane that is grown as an ornamental plant or
for use as a fuel. Also called elephant
grass
miscarry miscarry verb same as abort 2
(technical)
mist mist noun 1. the visible water vapour, in
the form of very fine droplets, in the atmos-
phere ć an early morning mist on the fields
ć Mist is thinner than fog. 2. water vapour
that has condensed on a cool surface 3. liq-
uid in the form of a spray ć an air/oil mist
í verb 1. also mist up to form a mist on a
cool surface ć The windows had misted up.
2. to spray plants with small drops of water
to keep them wet
mister mister noun a device for spraying plants
with small drops of water to keep them wet
mistral mistral noun a strong, cold wind from the
north which blows down the Rhone valley
into the Mediterranean
misty misty adjective referring to mist ć a misty
autumn morning ć a misty window
misuse misuse verb to use something wrongly or
inappropriately
mite mite noun a tiny animal of the spider fam-
ily which may be free-living in the soil or
on stored products, or parasitic on animals
or plants
miticide miticide noun a substance that kills mites
mixed mixed adjective referring to something
made up of different parts or categories
mixed mixed cropping cropping noun the practice of
growing more than one type of plant on the
same piece of land at the same time. Oppo-
site monocropping
mixed mixed farming farming noun the practice of
combining arable and dairy farming
mixed mixed fertiliser fertiliser noun same as com-
pound fertiliser
mixed mixed woodland woodland noun a wooded area
where neither conifers nor broadleaved
trees account for more than 75% of the total
mixture mixture noun something which is the re-
sult of mixing a number of things together
ml ml abbr millilitre
mm mm abbr millimetre
MMHD MMHD abbr Mountain, Moor, Heath,
Down
Mn Mn symbol manganese
Mo Mo symbol molybdenum
moder moder noun humus which is partly acid
mor and partly neutral mull
Modified Mercalli scale Modified Mercalli scale
noun a scale
rising from 1 to 12 used for measuring the
damage caused by an earthquake
module module noun a part that together with
other parts makes up another structure or
system
Mohorovicic discontinuity Mohorovicic discontinuity
, Moho
noun a boundary layer in the interior of the
Earth between the crust and the mantle, be-
low which seismic shocks move more rap-
idly
moist moist adjective damp or humid
moist moist tropical forest tropical forest noun a tropical
forest which receives less rain than other
types of tropical forest such as cloud forest
moisture moisture noun water or other liquid
molar molar adjective referring to a solution
containing one mole of solute per litre í
noun a large back tooth
mold mold noun, verb US spelling of mould
mole mole noun 1. a small dark-grey mammal
which makes tunnels under the ground and
139
Moon
eats worms and insects 2. a dark raised spot on the skin ć She has a large mole on her chin. 3. an SI unit of measurement of the amount of a substance. Symbol mol molecular molecular adjective referring to molecules
molecular molecular ecology ecology noun the study of ecological problems using the techniques of molecular biology molecule molecule noun the smallest particle into which a substance can be divided without changing its chemical and physical properties ć The molecules of a gas move more quickly than the molecules of a liquid.
mole mole drain drain noun an underground drain formed under the surface of the soil by a special plough (mole plough) as it is pulled across a field (NOTE: Mole drains are usual-
ly made 3 to 4 metres apart, and are used in fields with a clay subsoil.)
molehill molehill noun a small heap of earth pushed up to the surface by a mole as it makes its tunnel
mollusc mollusc noun an invertebrate animal with a soft body, a muscular foot on the underside used for movement and, in many species, a protective shell (NOTE: Molluscs are
found on land as well as in fresh and salt water; slugs, snails and shellfish are molluscs. The US spelling is mollusk.)
molluscicide molluscicide noun a substance used to kill molluscs such as snails
molten molten adjective having become liquid when heated. ı melt molybdenum molybdenum noun a metallic trace element. It is essential to biological life and is also used in electric wiring. (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Mo; the atomic number is 42 and the atomic weight is 95.94.)
monitor monitor noun 1. a screen for a computer display 2. a piece of equipment for showing information or recording a process í verb to check or examine how something is working monitoring monitoring noun a process of regular checking on the progress of something ć health monitoring ć Scientists have set up a monitoring programme to record the changes in the Sun’s radiation.
monitoring monitoring well well noun a well used to take water quality samples or to measure ground water levels
mono- mono- prefix single or one. Opposite mul-
ti-
monoclimax monoclimax noun a situation where one single community exists in a geographical region
monocline monocline noun a rock formation where
sedimentary rock slopes sharply on one
side of a fold
monocot monocot noun same as monocotyledon
(informal )
monocotyledenous monocotyledenous adjective referring
to monocotyledons
monocotyledon monocotyledon noun a plant with
seeds that have a single cotyledon, e.g. a
grass or lily. Compare dicotyledon. ı cot-
yledon
monocropping monocropping
,
monocrop
system,
monoculture noun a system of cultivation
in which a single crop plant such as wheat
is grown over a large area of land often for
several years. Opposite mixed cropping
monoecious monoecious adjective with male and fe-
male flowers on separate plants. Compare
dioecious
monogamy monogamy noun a breeding arrange-
ment where a male and female mate for
life. Compare polygamy
monophagous monophagous adjective referring to an
organism that feeds on only one kind of
food. Compare polyphagous
monophagy monophagy noun the practice of feeding
on only one kind of food. Compare poly-
phagy
monosodium glutamate monosodium glutamate
noun a sub-
stance, labelled E621, added to processed
food to enhance the flavour. Abbr MSG
(NOTE: It can cause a bad reaction in some
people.)
monotreme monotreme noun a type of mammal that
lays eggs but feeds its young on milk in a
pouch. The only monotremes are the duck-
billed platypus and the spiny anteater.
monsoon monsoon noun 1. a season of wind and
heavy rain in tropical countries 2. a wind
which blows in opposite directions accord-
ing to the season, especially the wind blow-
ing north from the Indian Ocean in the sum-
mer
monsoon monsoon forest forest noun a tropical rain-
forest in an area where rain falls during the
monsoon season
montane montane adjective referring to a plant or
animal found in mountainous regions
Montreal Montreal Protocol Protocol noun an internation-
al agreement to control the production and
use of chemicals containing bromine and
chlorine, such as CFCs, that damage the
ozone layer in the atmosphere. It was
signed in 1987 and later updated. Full form
Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer
Moon Moon noun a natural satellite that orbits
the Earth every 27 days
moor
140
moor moor noun an area of often high land that is not cultivated, and is formed of acid soil covered with grass and low shrubs such as heather moorland moorland noun a large area of moor mor mor noun a type of humus found in coniferous forests, which is acid and contains few nutrients. Compare mull moraine moraine noun a deposit of gravel and sand left by a glacier (NOTE: There are var-
ious types of moraine: ground moraine, which is a deposit left under a glacier; ter-
minal moraine, which is the heap of soil and sand pushed by a glacier and left behind when it melts; and lateral moraines, which
are deposits left at the sides of a glacier as it moves forward.)
moratorium moratorium noun a period when everyone agrees to stop a specific activity ć They voted to impose a ten-year moratorium on
whaling. ć The conference rejected a motion calling for a moratorium on nuclear
reprocessing. morbidity morbidity noun a state of being diseased or sick morbidity morbidity rate rate noun the number of cases of a disease per 100000 of population morph morph noun an organism with a characteristic shape morphology morphology noun the study of the structure and form of living organisms. ı geomorphology mortality mortality noun the occurrence of death ć The population count in spring is always lower than that in the autumn because of
winter mortality. mortality mortality rate rate noun same as death rate mosaic mosaic noun a disease of plants that makes yellow patterns on the leaves and can seriously affect some crops. It is often caused by viruses. mosquito mosquito noun an insect which sucks blood and passes viruses or parasites into the bloodstream (NOTE: The plural is mosquitoes or mosquitos.) mosquitocide mosquitocide noun a substance which kills mosquitoes moss moss noun a very small plant without roots, which grows in damp places and forms mats of vegetation ć Sphagnum is a type of moss. moth moth noun an insect similar to a butterfly that is generally active at night. Order: Lepidoptera. mother-of-pearl mother-of-pearl noun a hard shiny substance, mostly made up of calcium carbonate, which forms the inner layer of some shells such as oyster shells
mother mother rock rock noun a main layer of rock. Also called parent rock
motion motion noun the act of moving or changing position or place mould mould noun 1. a fungus, especially one that produces a fine powdery layer on the surface of an organism (NOTE: The US spelling is mold.) 2. soft earth moult moult noun an occasion of shedding feathers or hair at a specific period of the year í verb to shed feathers or hair at a specific period of the year ć Most animals moult at the beginning of summer. (NOTE:
The US spelling is molt.)
mount mount verb to fix something to a support ć to mount a specimen í noun something such as a support or frame to which something else can be fixed
Mount Mount noun a mountain. Abbr Mt (NOTE:
used in the names of specific mountains: Mount Everest.)
mountain mountain noun 1. a natural structure of rock rising very high above the surrounding land surface 2. a surplus or large amount of something, especially something that is being stored ć butter mountain ć fridge mountain ı lake 2 mountainous mountainous adjective referring to an area of land where there are high mountains mountainside mountainside noun the sloping side of a mountain
mouth mouth noun 1. the part of an animal’s body where food is taken in 2. a place where a river widens and joins the sea
mouthpart mouthpart noun a structure close to the mouth of an insect or other arthropod used to gather or chew food
MRL MRL abbr maximum residue level m/s m/s abbr metres per second MSG MSG abbr monosodium glutamate MSL MSL abbr mean sea level mSv mSv symbol millisievert Mt Mt abbr Mount MTCE MTCE abbr million tonnes of coal equivalent
mucilage mucilage noun slime secreted by some organisms such as seaweeds
mucin mucin noun a glycoprotein that is a constituent of mucus muck muck noun same as manure mucus mucus noun 1. a slimy solution of mucin secreted by vertebrates onto a mucous membrane to provide lubrication 2. a slimy substance secreted by invertebrates
mud mud noun a thick mixture of soil and water
141
myxomatosis
muddy muddy adjective containing mud, or covered with mud ć a muddy field ć muddy boots
mud mud flat flat noun a wide flat area of mud, usually in a river estuary
mudslide mudslide noun a large amount of mud that slips down a slope
mulch mulch noun an organic material used to spread over the surface of the soil to prevent evaporation or erosion, e.g. dead leaves or straw í verb to spread organic material over the surface of the soil to prevent evaporation or erosion
mull mull noun a type of humus found in deciduous forests. Compare mor (NOTE: It is
formed of rotted leaves, is PH neutral and contains many nutrients.)
Mullerian Mullerian mimicry mimicry noun a form of mimicry where an animal mimics another animal which has an unpleasant taste multi- multi- prefix many or more than one. Opposite mono-
multicellular multicellular adjective referring to an organism composed of several or many cells. Compare unicellular
multicropping multicropping noun the cultivation of more than one crop on the same piece of land in one year
municipal municipal adjective referring to a town or city
municipal municipal dump dump noun a place where a town’s rubbish is disposed of after it has been collected municipality municipality noun a town, city or region that has its own local government
municipal municipal refuse refuse, municipal waste noun the rubbish collected from homes and businesses in a town
municipal municipal wastewater wastewater noun effluent from wastewater treatment plants that deal with sewage from homes and businesses and excess water after storms
mushroom mushroom noun a common edible fungus, often grown commercially muskeg muskeg noun a bog in high cold plateau regions, especially in Canada
mutagen mutagen noun an agent that causes mutation, e.g. a chemical or radiation mutagenic mutagenic adjective referring to an agent that causes mutation mutagenicity mutagenicity noun the ability of an agent to make genes mutate mutant mutant adjective referring to a gene in which a mutation has occurred, or to an organism carrying such a gene ć mutant mice í noun an organism carrying a gene in which mutation has occurred ć New mutants have appeared. Also called mutation mutate mutate verb (of a gene or organism) to undergo a genetic change that can be inherited ć Bacteria can mutate suddenly and become increasingly able to infect. mutation mutation noun 1. a heritable change occurring in a gene 2. same as mutant mutualism mutualism noun same as symbiosis mutualist mutualist noun a species which benefits from symbiosis with another MVP MVP abbr minimum viable population myc- myc- prefix same as myco- (NOTE: used
before vowels)
mycelium mycelium noun a mass of hyphae which forms the main part of a fungus myco- myco- prefix fungus or fungal mycology mycology noun the study of fungi mycorrhiza mycorrhiza noun a mutual association of a fungus with the roots of a plant in which the fungus supplies the plant with water and minerals and feeds on the plant’s sugars (NOTE: Many different fungi form mycor-
rhizas, especially with trees, and many plants such as orchids cannot grow without
them.)
mycotoxin mycotoxin noun a toxic substance produced by a fungus growing on crops in the field or in storage. There are regulations controlling the amount of some mycotoxins such as aflatoxin and ochratoxin permitted in food. myiasis myiasis noun an infestation of animals by the larvae of flies myxomatosis myxomatosis noun a usually fatal virus disease affecting rabbits, transmitted by fleas
N
NN symbol 1. nitrogen 2. newton
Na Na symbol sodium
nacelle nacelle noun a part of a wind generator
that contains the generator and gearbox at
the top of the tower
nacreous nacreous clouds clouds plural noun thin
clouds, possibly made of ice crystals,
which form a layer about 25km above the
Earth and look like mother-of-pearl
nanogram nanogram noun one billionth of a gram
nanoplankton nanoplankton plural noun plankton in
the size range 10 –50 µm
NAO NAO abbr North Atlantic Oscillation
nastic nastic response response noun a response of
plants and flowers to a stimulus which is
not connected with the direction from
which the stimulus comes, e.g. the closing
of flowers at night
-nasty -nasty suffix nastic response
natality natality noun birth
national national adjective referring to a specific
country í noun belonging to the people of
a specific country
national national grid grid noun same as electricity
grid
National Nature Reserve National Nature Reserve
noun a na-
tionally important example of a type of
habitat, established as reserve to protect the
most important areas of wildlife habitat and
geological formations. Abbr NNR (NOTE:
There are over 200 National Nature Re-
serves in England, owned or controlled by
English Nature or held by approved bodies
such as Wildlife Trusts.)
national national park park noun a large area of land
selected because of its scenic, recreational,
scientific, or historical importance for spe-
cial protection from development, and
managed by a local government body for
recreational use by the public and the bene-
fit of the local community
National Radiological Protection National Radiological Protection Board
Board noun an agency that monitors radi-
ation risks to the UK population. Abbr
NRPB
National Resources Institute National Resources Institute
noun a
specialised research institute of the Univer-
sity of Greenwich, UK, working in the area
of the sustainable management of natural
and human resources in the developing
world and elsewhere. Abbr NRI
National Rivers Authority National Rivers Authority
noun a
former UK statutory body responsible for
water management, flood defence and the
regulation of water quality. Abbr NRA
(NOTE: Now part of the Environment Agen-
cy.)
National National Scenic Area Scenic Area noun a national
park in Scotland
National National Trust Trust noun 1. in England,
Wales and Northern Ireland, a charitable
organisation that preserves historic build-
ings, gardens, parks, coastline and areas of
natural beauty for the benefit of the public
2. in Australia, an organisation that pre-
serves historic monuments and areas of nat-
ural beauty for the benefit of the public
National Trust for Scotland National Trust for Scotland
noun in
Scotland, a charitable organisation that pre-
serves historic buildings, gardens, parks,
coastline and areas of natural beauty for the
benefit of the public
National Vegetation Classification National Vegetation Classification
noun a systemic scheme for classifying
types of vegetation in the United Kingdom,
covering all natural, semi-natural and ma-
jor artificial habitats, including derelict ur-
ban sites. Abbr NVC
native native adjective always having lived,
grown or existed in a place ć Tigers are na-
tive to Asia.
native native species species noun a species which ex-
ists naturally in an area
Natura Natura 2000 2000 noun in the European Un-
ion, a network of environmental sites desig-
nated by member states as of special inter-
est for protection for their habitats or bird
life
natural natural adjective 1. not made by people ć
natural materials ć areas of natural beauty
2. usual or expected ć It’s natural to be
concerned about what’s in the food you eat.
natural natural amenities amenities plural noun features
of the landscape that are not made by hu-
mans and are regarded as contributing to a
pleasant environment, e.g. rivers, lakes or
moorland
Natural Natural Area Area noun an area of the United
Kingdom that is a biogeographical zone
with a characteristic association of wildlife
and natural features (NOTE: There are both
143
neap tide
terrestrial and marine Natural Areas, managed by English Nature.)
natural natural background background noun the surrounding level of radiation or substances such as arsenic in a specific location
natural natural capital capital noun natural resources seen in economic terms as stock, goods and services
natural natural disaster disaster noun a phenomenon such as a storm, earthquake or flood that destroys property and kills people and livestock
natural natural ecosystem ecosystem noun an ecosystem where humans have had no more local influence than native species
natural natural environment environment noun 1. same as natural habitat 2. the part of the Earth that has not been built or formed by humans. Compare built environment
natural natural forest forest noun a forest that has not been planted, maintained or exploited on a large scale by humans
natural natural gas gas noun a gas often found near petroleum deposits, although it can occur without petroleum, used as a domestic fuel
(NOTE: It is mainly formed of methane but also contains small amounts of butane and propane. It contains no sulfur, unlike coal gas, and since it mixes with air it burns completely, creating very little carbon monoxide.)
natural natural habitat habitat noun 1. the usual surroundings in which an organism lives in the wild. Also called natural environment 2. an area of land or water where the majority of species are native and there has been very little human activity
natural natural historian historian noun same as natu-
ralist
natural natural history history noun the study of living organisms in their natural environments and of the features of the Earth not formed by humans
naturalise naturalise verb to introduce a species into an area where it has not lived or grown before so that it becomes established as part of the ecosystem ć Rhododendron ponticum has become naturalised in parts of Britain.
naturalist naturalist noun a person who is interested in and studies the natural environment and its organisms. Also called natural his-
torian
natural natural pollutant pollutant noun a polluting substance that occurs naturally, e.g. ash from a volcano
natural natural resource resource noun a naturally oc-
curring material that can be put to use by
humans, e.g. wood or oil (often plural)
natural natural science science noun a science that
deals with aspects of the physical world,
e.g. biology, chemistry, geology or physics
(often plural)
natural natural scientist scientist noun a person who
specialises in natural science
natural natural selection selection noun the process of
evolutionary change, by which offspring of
organisms with certain characteristics are
more able to survive and reproduce than
offspring of other organisms, thus gradual-
ly changing the composition of a popula-
tion
natural natural vegetation vegetation noun the range of
plant communities that exist in the natural
environment without being planted or man-
aged by people
nature nature noun all living organisms and the environments in which they live ˽ to go
back to nature to return to a state similar
to the one that existed before cultivation ć
They’ve let the hillside go back to nature. ı
back-to-nature
Nature Conservancy Council Nature Conservancy Council
noun a
former UK organisation (1973–91) that
took official responsibility for the conser-
vation of fauna and flora. Abbr NCC (NOTE:
Now replaced by English Nature, the Coun-
tryside Council for Wales and Scottish Nat-
ural Heritage.)
nature nature conservation conservation noun the active
management of the Earth’s natural resourc-
es, plants, animals and environment, to en-
sure that they survive or are appropriately
used
nature nature management management noun the activity
of managing a natural environment to en-
courage plant and animal life. Also called
habitat management
nature nature reserve reserve noun an area where
plants, animals and their environment are
protected
nature nature trail trail noun a path through the
countryside with signs to draw attention to
important and interesting features about
plants, animals and the environment
NAWARAD NAWARAD abbr National Assembly for
Wales Agriculture and Rural Affairs De-
partment
NCC NCC abbr Nature Conservancy Council
NDPB NDPB abbr non-departmental public body
Ne Ne symbol neon
neap neap tide tide noun a tide which occurs at the
first and last quarters of the Moon, when
Nearctic Region
144
the difference between high and low water is less than usual. Compare spring tide Nearctic Nearctic Region Region noun a biogeographical region, part of Arctogea, comprising North America and Greenland necrotroph necrotroph noun a parasite which only feeds on dead organisms. Compare biotroph nectar nectar noun a sweet sugary liquid produced by flowers, which attracts birds or insects which pollinate the flowers nectary nectary noun a plant part that produces nectar, often found at the base of a flower (NOTE: Nectaries are usually in the flowers but may also develop on other plant parts such as the traps of pitcher plants.) need need noun something that is necessary or required ć the need for clean water í plural noun needs something that a person must have for their health or well-being ć nutritional needs needle needle noun 1. a thin hard leaf of a conifer 2. a thin metal pointer in an instrument ć The needle on the dial indicated zero. -needled -needled suffix with needles ć two needled or five-needled pines NEF NEF abbr noise exposure forecast negative negative adjective having a value of less than 0 ć The mechanism enables the propeller to be set to a negative pitch. Symbol -. Opposite positive negative negative feedback feedback noun a situation in which the result of a process inhibits the action which caused the process negative negative ion generator ion generator noun same as ioniser
neighbourhood neighbourhood noise noise noun the general noise from a local source such as a factory which is disturbing to people living in the area nekton nekton plural noun swimming sea animals such as fish, as opposed to floating or drifting animals such as plankton nematicide nematicide noun a substance which kills nematodes nematode nematode noun a type of roundworm, some of which, such as hookworms, are parasites of animals while others, such as root knot and cyst nematodes, live in the roots or stems of plants neo- neo- prefix new neo-Darwinism neo-Darwinism noun a revised form of Darwin’s theory of evolution which accounts for modern genetics and other recent discoveries Neogea Neogea noun one of the main biogeographical regions of the Earth, comprising Central and South America together with
the islands in the Caribbean. Also called
Neotropical Region. ı Arctogea, Noto-
gea
neon neon noun an inert gas found in very
small quantities in the atmosphere. It is
used in illuminated signs. (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Ne; the atomic number
is 10 and the atomic weight is 20.18.)
Neotropical Neotropical Region Region noun same as Ne-
ogea
neptunium neptunium noun a naturally radioactive
element (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Np;
the atomic number is 93 and the atomic
weight is 237.05.)
NERC NERC abbr Natural Environment Re-
search Council
neritic neritic adjective referring to an animal or
plant which lives in the shallow sea over the
continental shelf
nervous nervous system system noun the network of
specialised cells that transmit nerve im-
pulses in most animals
nest nest noun 1. a construction built by birds
and some fish for their eggs 2. a construc-
tion made by some social insects such as
ants and bees for the colony to live in í
verb to build a nest
nestling nestling noun a very young bird that has
not yet left its nest
net primary productivity net primary productivity
noun the
rate at which organic matter is incorporated
into plants to produce growth. ı gross pri-
mary productivity
network network noun a complex interconnected
group or system of people or things ć A
network of meteorological stations around
the world exchange information. í verb to
link people or things together in a network
neurotoxicity neurotoxicity noun the capacity to pre-
vent nerve impulses from working
neurotoxin neurotoxin noun a substance which pre-
vents nerve impulses from working, e.g. the
poison of a snake or insect
neuston neuston plural noun organisms such as
plankton which float or swim in the surface
film of a body of water
neutral neutral adjective 1. referring to the state
of being neither acid nor alkali ć pH 7 is
neutral. 2. referring to an electrical charge
that is neither positive nor negative
neutralisation neutralisation
,
neutralization
noun
a
chemical process in which an acid reacts
with a base to form a salt and water
neutralise neutralise
,
neutralize
verb
1.
to
make
an
acid neutral ć Acid in drainage water can
be neutralised by limestone. 2. to make a
bacterial toxin harmless by combining it
145
nitrogen fixation
with the correct amount of antitoxin 3. to
counteract the effect of something
neutralising neutralising
,
neutralizing
adjective
re-
ferring to a substance which acts against
the effect of something
névé névé noun the spring snow on high moun-
tains which becomes harder and more like
ice during the summer
new new chemicals chemicals plural noun the chemi-
cals that were not listed in the European In-
ventory of Existing Commercial Chemical
Substances between January 1971 and Sep-
tember 1981. Compare existing chemi-
cals
newton newton noun an SI unit of measurement
of force. Abbr N (NOTE: 1 newton is the
force required to move 1 kilogram at the
speed of 1 metre per second.)
NGO NGO abbr non-governmental organisation
Ni Ni symbol nickel
niche niche noun a place in an ecosystem which
a species has adapted to occupy
nickel nickel noun a metallic element (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Ni; the atomic number
is 28 and the atomic weight is 58.71.)
nicotine nicotine noun a harmful substance in to-
bacco. It is used as an insecticide.
nid- nid- prefix nest
nidicolous nidicolous adjective referring to a very
young bird that is not well developed when
it leaves the egg and remains in the nest for
some time
nidifugous nidifugous adjective referring to a very
young bird that is well developed when it
leaves the egg and can leave the nest imme-
diately
night night soil soil noun human excreta, collected
and used for fertiliser in some parts of the
world
nimbostratus nimbostratus noun a grey mass of cloud
with precipitation in the form of rain or
snow about 1000m above the ground
NIMBY NIMBY noun used to describe people who
are willing to accept development and
building for various purposes, provided it is
not near where they themselves are living.
Full form not in my backyard
nitrate nitrate noun 1. an ion with the formula
NO3 2. a chemical compound containing the nitrate ion, e.g. sodium nitrate
nitrate-sensitive nitrate-sensitive area area, nitrate-vulner-
able zone noun a region of the country
where nitrate pollution is likely and where
the use of nitrate fertilisers is strictly con-
trolled. Abbr NSA, NVZ
nitric nitric adjective referring to a compound
containing nitrogen
nitric nitric acid acid noun a corrosive acid. It is a very reactive oxidising agent, used in making fertilisers. Formula: HNO3. nitric nitric oxide oxide noun a gas that is produced by burning at high temperatures, as in forest fires and internal combustion engines. Formula: NO. Also called nitrogen mon-
oxide (NOTE: It converts to nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere, is a major contributor to photochemical smog and is soluble in water. It contributes to acid rain (nitric acid) deposition, and is important in the catalytic destruction of ozone in the stratosphere.)
nitrification nitrification noun the process by which bacteria in the soil break down nitrogen compounds and form nitrates which plants can absorb (NOTE: It is part of the nitrogen
cycle.)
nitrifier nitrifier noun a microorganism that is involved in the process of nitrification nitrify nitrify verb to convert nitrogen or nitrogen compounds into nitrates nitrite nitrite noun 1. an ion with the formula NO2 2. a chemical compound containing the nitrite ion, e.g. sodium nitrite nitrogen nitrogen noun a chemical element that is the main component of air and an essential part of protein. It is essential to biological life. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is N; the
atomic number is 7 and the atomic weight is 14.01.)
nitrogen nitrogen cycle cycle noun the set of processes by which nitrogen is converted from a gas in the atmosphere to nitrogen-containing substances in soil and living organisms, then converted back to a gas (NOTE: Nitro-
gen is absorbed into green plants in the form of nitrates, the plants are then eaten by animals and the nitrates are returned to the ecosystem through animals’ excreta or when an animal or a plant dies.)
nitrogen nitrogen deficiency deficiency noun a lack of nitrogen in the soil, found where organic matter is low and resulting in thin, weak growth of plants nitrogen nitrogen dioxide dioxide noun a brown toxic irritant gas. Formula: NO2. (NOTE: It is one of
the pollutants produced by vehicle exhausts.)
nitrogen nitrogen fertiliser fertiliser noun a fertiliser containing mainly nitrogen, e.g. ammonium nitrate nitrogen nitrogen fixation fixation noun the process by which nitrogen in the air is converted by bacteria in some plant roots into nitrogen compounds (NOTE: When the plants die the
nitrogen is released into the soil and acts as a fertiliser.)
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
146
nitrogen-fixing bacteria nitrogen-fixing bacteria
plural noun
bacteria such as Rhizobium in the soil
which convert nitrogen in the air into nitro-
gen compounds by means of the process of
nitrogen fixation in plants
nitrogen-fixing nitrogen-fixing plant plant noun a legumi-
nous plant which forms an association with
bacteria that convert nitrogen from the air
into nitrogen compounds in the soil, e.g. a
pea plant
nitrogen nitrogen monoxide monoxide noun same as ni-
tric oxide
nitrogenous nitrogenous adjective referring to a
compound containing nitrogen
nitrogen nitrogen oxide oxide noun an oxide formed
when nitrogen is oxidised, e.g. nitric oxide
or nitrogen dioxide. Formula: NOx.
‘The largest source of nitrogen oxides (NOx)
emissions in the UK is the transport sector. (De-
livering the evidence. Defra’s Science and Inno-
vation Strategy 2003–06)’
nitrous nitrous oxide oxide noun a gas with a sweet
smell that is one of the major greenhouse
gases. Formula: HNO2. (NOTE: It is produced by soil cultivation and fertilisation
and by burning fossil fuels and biomass.)
nival nival adjective growing in or under the
snow
NNI NNI abbr noise and number index
NNR NNR abbr National Nature Reserve
NOAEL NOAEL noun the highest concentration of
a substance that causes no harm which can
be detected by existing testing methods.
Full form no-observed-adverse-effect-
level
noble noble gas gas noun a gas that does not react
chemically with other substances. Also
called rare gas, inert gas (NOTE: The noble
gases include helium, neon, argon, kryp-
ton, xenon and radon.)
noble noble metal metal noun a metal such as gold or
silver that resists corrosion and does not
form compounds with non-metals. Com-
pare base metal
nocturnal nocturnal adjective 1. referring to an or-
ganism that is active at night ć Owls and
badgers are nocturnal. Compare diurnal 2.
happening at night
nocturnal nocturnal animal animal plural noun an animal
that is active at night and sleeps during the
day
node node noun a point on the stem of a plant
where a leaf is attached
nodule nodule noun a small lump found on the
roots of leguminous plants such as peas
which contains bacteria that can convert ni-
trogen from the air into nitrogen com-
pounds
no no dumping dumping noun a sign telling people
that they are not allowed to throw away
waste in that particular place
NOEL NOEL noun the highest concentration of a
substance that has no detectable effect on
humans. Full form no-observed-effect-
level
noise noise noun unwanted sound, especially
an sound that is unpleasant or too loud
noise noise abatement abatement noun measures taken
to reduce unacceptable noise or vibrations,
or to protect people from exposure to it
Noise Abatement Society Noise Abatement Society
noun an
association of people who work to influ-
ence others to reduce loud or irritating nois-
es
noise and number index noise and number index
noun a way
of measuring noise from aircraft. Abbr NNI
noise noise charge charge noun a fee paid by a com-
pany to be allowed to make some amount of
noise in the course of its business
noise noise criteria criteria plural noun the levels of
noise which are acceptable to people who
hear them
noise exposure forecast noise exposure forecast
noun a fore-
cast of the effect that industrial or aircraft
noise will have on people. Abbr NEF
noise noise level level noun the degree of loudness
of a noise, taken as a measurement ć The
factory has announced plans to keep noise
levels down to a minimum.
noise noise nuisance nuisance noun a noise which is
annoying, disturbing or unpleasant to
someone
noise noise pollution pollution noun annoying or phys-
ically dangerous noise to which people are
exposed in their work or home environment
and over which they often have no control
noise noise pollution level pollution level noun the degree
of loudness of annoying or physically dan-
gerous noise in a person’s environment,
taken as a measurement. Abbr NPL
noise noise zone zone noun an area which is classi-
fied according to the amount of noise that
exists in it
noisy noisy adjective 1. making a loud noise 2.
referring to a place where there is a lot of
noise
nomad nomad noun an animal that moves from
place to place without having a fixed range.
Compare migrant
nomadic nomadic adjective referring to nomads
nomadism nomadism noun a habit of some animals
that move from place to place without hav-
ing a fixed range
nomenclature nomenclature noun a system for giving
names to organisms ć taxonomic nomen-
clature
147
northern hemisphere
non- non- prefix not or no
non-biodegradable non-biodegradable
,
non-degradable
adjective referring to an object or substance
that cannot be decomposed into environ-
mentally safe waste materials by the action
of soil bacteria
non-degradation non-degradation noun the prevention
of the pollution of clean air
non-departmental public body non-departmental public body
noun an organisation set up to carry out a
specific role within government responsi-
bilities, but which is not a government de-
partment or part of one. Abbr NDPB
non-disposable non-disposable adjective referring to a
product that is not thrown away after use,
but can be recycled
non-ferrous non-ferrous adjective not containing
iron
non-flammable non-flammable adjective referring to a
material that is difficult to set on fire
non-genetically modified non-genetically modified
adjective
referring to an organism with a genetic
composition that has not been altered by
genetic modification. Abbr non-GM
non-governmental non-governmental organisation
organisation
noun an organisation which is not funded
by a government and which works on a lo-
cal, national or international level, e.g. a
pressure group, charity or voluntary agen-
cy. Abbr NGO
non-indigenous non-indigenous adjective referring to a
plant, animal or person that is not native to
a place
non-metal non-metal noun a chemical element that
lacks the physical and chemical properties
of a metal, e.g. carbon or oxygen
non-native non-native adjective relating to a species
that did not originate where it is now found.
Also called alien, exotic
non-organic non-organic adjective 1. referring to a
compound that does not contain carbon 2.
referring to crops that are not produced ac-
cording to guidelines restricting the use of
fertilisers and other practices
non-persistent non-persistent adjective referring to a
chemical, especially a pesticide, that de-
composes quickly after it has been applied
so that it does not enter the food chain
non-point non-point source source noun a source of pol-
lution not associated with a specific dis-
charge point. Compare point source
(NOTE: Non-point sources include rainwater
and runoff from agricultural land and indus-
trial sites, as well as escaping gases from
pipes and fittings.)
non-renewable non-renewable adjective 1. not able to
be replaced when used up because a supply
is limited ć non-renewable fuels 2. not able
to be extended for a longer period ć non-
renewable contract
non-renewable energy non-renewable energy
noun power
generated from a resource such as coil or
oil that cannot be replaced once it has been
used
non-renewable resource non-renewable resource
noun a nat-
ural resource which cannot be replaced
once it has been used, e.g. coal or oil
non-resistant non-resistant adjective referring to an
organism that is not resistant to a disease,
antibiotic, pesticide, herbicide or other
agent
non-selective weedkiller non-selective weedkiller
noun a
weedkiller that kills all plants
non-till non-till adjective ‘ no-till agriculture
non-toxic non-toxic adjective referring to a sub-
stance that is not poisonous or harmful to
humans or other organisms or the environ-
ment
non-woody non-woody adjective referring to plants
that do not form woody stems
normal environmental lapse rate normal environmental lapse rate
noun the rate at which the temperature of
the air falls with height above the Earth
(NOTE: This is about 6.4°C per thousand
metres, under conditions where there are
no upward air currents or wind.)
normal room temperature normal room temperature
noun the
temperature regarded as comfortable for
usual daily human activity
North Atlantic Conveyor North Atlantic Conveyor
noun an
ocean current system carrying warm sur-
face waters to the North Atlantic, where
they cool and drop to a deeper level before
flowing south again. Also called Atlantic
Conveyor Belt (NOTE: Because it transfers
heat to the atmosphere, it gives northwest-
ern Europe a more temperate climate than
other countries on a similar latitude such as
Canada.)
North North Atlantic Drift Atlantic Drift noun a current of
warm water flowing north along the east
coast of the USA from the Gulf of Mexico,
then crossing the Atlantic to northern Eu-
rope (NOTE: It is part of the North Atlantic
Conveyor.)
North Atlantic Oscillation North Atlantic Oscillation
noun an at-
mospheric mass that alternates between the
North and South Poles and affects the
strength and route of storms crossing the
Atlantic from America to Europe as it
changes in mass and pressure. Its effects
are most obvious in November to April.
Abbr NAO
northern northern hemisphere hemisphere noun the upper
half of the Earth
Northern Lights
148
Northern Northern Lights Lights plural noun a spectacular illumination of the sky in the northern hemisphere caused by ionised particles striking the atmosphere. Also called Auro-
ra Borealis
North North Sea Sea noun the sea to the north of the Netherlands and Germany, east of the UK and west of Scandinavia North North Sea oil Sea oil noun oil extracted from the rocks under the North Sea no smoking no smoking area area noun a part of a public place such as a restaurant or airport where smoking is not allowed notifiable notifiable disease disease noun a serious infectious disease of plants, animals or people that has to be officially reported so that steps can be taken to stop it spreading notify notify verb to inform someone about something officially no-till no-till agriculture agriculture, no-till farming noun a system of cultivation in which mechanical disturbance of the soil by ploughing is kept to a minimum to reduce soil erosion. Also called non-till. ı minimum till-
age
Notogea Notogea noun one of the main biogeographical regions of the Earth, comprising Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. ı Arctogea, Neogea noxious noxious adjective harmful to people or animals
noy noy noun a unit of measurement of perceived noise Np Np symbol neptunium NPK NPK noun nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, used in different proportions as a fertiliser NPL NPL abbr noise pollution level
NRA NRA abbr National Rivers Authority NRI NRI abbr National Resources Institute NRPB NRPB abbr National Radiological Protection Board NSA NSA abbr nitrate-sensitive area nuclear nuclear adjective 1. referring to an atomic nucleus, especially to the production of energy by fission or fusion of nuclei 2. referring to a cell nucleus nuclear nuclear accident accident noun an unexpected event in a nuclear power station which results in release of radiation into the environment above permitted safety levels nuclear nuclear contamination contamination noun the damage done to an object, person or substance because of contact with nuclear radiation nuclear nuclear energy energy noun the energy released during a nuclear reaction
nuclear nuclear fallout fallout noun the radioactive ma-
terial which falls from the atmosphere after
a nuclear explosion
nuclear-free nuclear-free adjective without nuclear
reactors or nuclear weapons ć While some
countries remain nuclear-free, nuclear re-
actors supply about 15% of all electricity
generated in the world.
nuclear-free nuclear-free zone zone noun an area in
which the use of nuclear reactors or the use
of nuclear weapons is not allowed
nuclear nuclear power power noun the power generat-
ed by a nuclear reactor
nuclear nuclear power plant power plant, nuclear power
station noun a power station in which nu-
clear reactions are used to provide energy
to run turbines which generate electricity
nuclear nuclear waste waste noun the radioactive
waste from a nuclear reactor, including
spent fuel rods and coolant
nuclear nuclear winter winter noun a period expected
to follow a nuclear explosion, when there
would be no warmth and light because dust
particles would obscure the Sun and most
life would be affected by radiation
nucleating nucleating agent agent noun a substance
such as solid carbon dioxide that is scat-
tered on clouds to make them release rain
nucleic nucleic acid acid noun a complex organic ac-
id, either DNA or RNA, that exists in the
nucleus and protoplasm of all cells
nucleus nucleus noun 1. the central core of an at-
om, formed of neutrons and protons 2. the
central body in a cell, containing DNA and
RNA, and controlling the function and
characteristics of the cell 3. a central part or
focus round which something gathers
nué nué ardente ardente noun a cloud of burning gas
that flows downhill during a volcanic erup-
tion
nuisance nuisance noun something annoying, dis-
turbing or unpleasant
nuisance nuisance threshold threshold noun the point at
which something such as a noise or smell
becomes annoying or unpleasant
nursery nursery noun a place where plants are
grown until they are large enough to be
planted in their final positions
nut nut noun a hard indehiscent fruit with one
seed
nutraceutical nutraceutical
,
nutriceutical
noun
same
as functional food
nutrient nutrient noun a substance that an organ-
ism needs to allow it to grow, thrive and re-
produce, e.g. carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, ni-
trogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium or sulfur. Plants obtain their
nutrients from the soil, while humans and
149
obscure
other animals obtain them from their food, including plants. nutrient nutrient budget budget noun the calculation of the amount of a nutrient taken up by an individual and the amount lost by an individual to the environment nutrient nutrient leaching leaching noun the loss of nutrients from the soil caused by water flowing through it, which deprives the soil of nutrients and may pollute water courses nutrient nutrient requirement requirement noun the type and amount of nutrients needed by an organism nutrient nutrient source source noun the source of a nutrient for an individual or community nutrition nutrition noun the process of taking in the necessary food components to grow and remain healthy. ı soil nutrition nutritional nutritional adjective referring to nutrition ć the nutritional quality of meat nutritional nutritional requirement requirement noun the type and amount of food needed by an organism nutritious nutritious adjective referring to food that provides the nutrients that are needed for growth and health
nutritive nutritive adjective 1. referring to a substance that provides the necessary components for growth and health ć plants grown in a nutritive solution 2. referring to nutrition nutritive nutritive value value noun the degree to which a food is valuable in promoting health ć The nutritive value of white flour is lower than that of wholemeal flour. NVC NVC abbr National Vegetation Classification NVZ NVZ abbr nitrate-vulnerable zone nyct- nyct- prefix night nyctinasty nyctinasty noun the opening or closing of flowers and leaves at night in response to darkness and falling temperature nymph nymph noun an insect at the stage in its development between the larval stage and adulthood nymphal nymphal adjective referring to the stage in the development of some insects between the larval stage and adulthood
O
OO symbol oxygen
oak oak noun a deciduous or evergreen hardwood tree of which there are many species. Latin name: Quercus.
oak oak apple apple, oak gall noun a small hard round growth found on oak trees, caused by a parasitic wasp
oakwood oakwood noun a number of oak trees growing together
oasis oasis noun a place in an arid desert where the water table is near the surface and where vegetation can grow. In the oases of the hot desert regions, date palms form an important food supply. (NOTE: The plural is
oases.)
oat oat noun a hardy cereal crop grown in most types of soil in cool wet northern temperate regions. Latin name: Avena sativa.
(NOTE: Oats are regarded as environmentally friendly because they require fewer inputs than other cereals.)
objective objective noun a goal or target to be achieved í adjective referring to thoughts
based on facts rather than personal feelings ć an objective assessment
obligate obligate adjective referring to an organism that exists or develops only in a particular set of circumstances ć an obligate parasite ć an obligate anaerobe Compare
facultative
obliterative obliterative shading shading, obliterative countershading noun the grading of the colour of an animal, such as a dark back dark shading towards a light belly, which minimises shapes and gives a flat appearance
obscure obscure verb 1. to make something difficult to see or prevent something from being seen ć The ice forming on the window obscured vision. 2. to make something difficult to realise or understand ć The low temperatures in the years after the volcanic eruption obscured the general trend of gradual global warming. í adjective not clearly expressed and therefore difficult to understand ć an obscure explanation
observation
150
observation observation noun the process of watching or studying someone or something carefully to find out information ć The type of cloud is established by observation and comparison with cloud photographs. ˽ under observation being watched carefully observations observations plural noun the pieces of scientific information gathered by using any of the five human senses, but especially sight ć observations of feeding patterns observe observe verb 1. to watch or study something carefully to find out information ć
They observed the birds’ behaviour for several weeks. 2. to obey something such as an agreement or a guideline ć We expect everyone to observe the safety guidelines. OC OC abbr organic carbon occidental occidental adjective referring to the west occluded occluded front front noun a weather front where warm and cold air masses meet and mix together, the warm air rising away from the surface of the ground occlusion occlusion noun the forcing of air upwards from the Earth’s surface, as when a cold front overtakes and flows under a warm front occupational occupational asthma asthma noun asthma caused by materials with which people comes into contact at work, e.g. asthma in farm workers (farmer’s lung), caused by hay occupational occupational exposure exposure noun the situation of experiencing a health hazard while at work ocean ocean noun the body of salt water which covers the Earth (NOTE: American English prefers to use ocean, British English pre-
fers to use sea.)
oceanarium oceanarium noun a large saltwater aquarium where marine animals are kept for display ocean ocean dumping dumping noun the discharging of waste, solid, liquid or radioactive, into the ocean, now banned oceanic oceanic adjective 1. referring to an ocean, especially to deep water beyond the continental shelf 2. living in the ocean ocean ocean incineration incineration noun the burning of toxic waste in special ships at sea, now banned oceanography oceanography noun the study of all the physical aspects of the ocean, including the fauna and flora living there oceanology oceanology noun the study of the geographical distribution of the ocean’s economic resources Ocean Thermal Energy Conver- Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion sion noun the process whereby the differ-
ence in temperature between the upper and lower layers of water in tropical seas is used to generate electricity and fresh water. Abbr OTEC (NOTE: Warmer water from the upper layer is converted to steam to drive turbines and then condensed to provide fresh water.)
octa octa noun another spelling of okta
octane octane noun a liquid hydrocarbon that exists in 18 structurally different forms. Formula: C8H18.
COMMENT: Petrol without the addition of hydrocarbons will make the engine knock. Hydrocarbons, such as octane or aromatic hydrocarbons, or lead tetraethyl can be added to the petrol to give better performance, while increasing the octane rating. Unleaded petrol has a relatively low octane rating and leaded petrol, which contains an antiknock additive, has a high rating. Leaded petrol produces more atmospheric pollution than unleaded.
odour odour noun a smell, especially an unpleasant smell (NOTE: The US spelling is
odor.)
odour odour nuisance nuisance noun a smell which is annoying or unpleasant
ODP ODP abbr ozone-depleting potential or ozone-depletion potential
ODS ODS abbr ozone-depleting substance
oestrogen oestrogen noun a steroid hormone belonging to a group of hormones that controls the reproductive cycle and the development of secondary sexual characteristics in female primates (NOTE: The US spelling
is estrogen.)
offpeak offpeak adjective referring to a period during which the consumption of something is low ć Offpeak electricity costs less. ć By using thermal storage we can move 50% of electricity demand into offpeak hours.
offshore offshore adjective, adverb 1. in sea water near a coast 2. at a distance from a coast
offshore offshore island island noun an island situated up to 12.5 km or 20 miles from a coast
offshore offshore windfarm windfarm noun a collection of wind turbines for the production of electricity situated in the sea at some distance from a coast (NOTE: Britain’s first offshore
windfarm is situated 1 km off the coast of Blyth, Northumberland.)
offspring offspring noun a child, the young of an animal, or a descendant of a plant (NOTE:
The plural is offspring: The birds usually produce three or four offspring each year.)
ohm ohm noun the SI unit of measurement of electrical resistance. Symbol Ω
151
ooze
oil oil noun 1. a liquid compound which does not mix with water, occurring as vegetable or animal oils, essential volatile oils and mineral oils 2. mineral oil extracted from underground deposits, used to make petrol and other petroleum products
COMMENT: Oil is made up of different types of hydrocarbon together with sulfur compounds, and usually occurs in combination with natural gas or water. When these are removed it is called crude oil or crude petroleum. Refined crude oil gives products such as petrol, LPG, diesel oil, paraffin wax and tar. Crude oil is found in geological deposits, mainly in the Middle East, in the North Sea, Central America and Asia.
oil-bearing oil-bearing adjective referring to rock, sand or shale that contains oil
oil oil crop crop noun a crop grown for extraction of the oil in its seeds, e.g. sunflower or oilseed rape
oil-exporting oil-exporting country country noun a country which produces enough oil from underground deposits for its own use and to sell to other countries
oilfield oilfield noun an area of rock under which lie one or more pools of oil that can be extracted ć The search is on for new oilfields to replace fields which have been exhausted.
oil-fired oil-fired adjective using oil as fuel ć oilfired central heating
oil-importing oil-importing country country noun a country which buys the fuel and industrial oil it uses from other countries
oil pollution oil pollution noun damage to an area caused by oil, e.g. pollution of the sea by oil from a damaged oil tanker
oil oil sand sand noun a geological formation of sand or sandstone containing bitumen, which can be extracted and processed to give oil. Also called tar sand, bituminous
sand
oilseed oilseed rape rape noun a plant of the cabbage family with bright yellow flowers, grown to provide an edible oil and animal feed from the processed seeds. Latin name: Brassica napus. Also called rape (NOTE: Oil pro-
duced from oilseed rape is often called ‘vegetable oil’.)
oilseeds oilseeds plural noun crops grown for the oil extracted from their seeds, e.g. oilseed rape or linseed
oil oil slick slick noun oil which has escaped into water and floats on the surface
oil oil spill spill noun an escape of oil into the environment, especially from a damaged ship, vehicle or pipeline
oily oily adjective containing oil
okta okta
,
octa
noun
a
unit
of
visible
sky
equal
to one eighth of total area visible to the ho-
rizon
old old growth growth noun a long-established for-
est or woodland with some large old trees
which supports a relatively stable and di-
verse community of plants and animals
old-growth old-growth forest forest noun a forest that has
never been affected to any great extent by
human activity
olefin olefin
,
olefine
noun
an
aliphatic
hydro-
carbon
olfactory olfactory adjective referring to the sense
of smell
oligo- oligo- prefix few or little
oligohaline oligohaline adjective (of water ) having
traces of salt. ı mesohaline, polyhaline
oligophagous oligophagous adjective referring to an-
imals that feed on only some types of prey
oligophagy oligophagy noun the practice of feeding
on only some types of prey
oligosaprobic oligosaprobic adjective referring to an
organism that is unable to survive in pollut-
ed water
oligotrophic oligotrophic adjective (of water) refer-
ring to water that contains few nutrients. ı
dystrophic, eutrophic, mesotrophic
oligotrophy oligotrophy noun the state of being oli-
gotrophic
olive olive noun a Mediterranean tree with
small yellowish-green edible fruit from
which an edible oil can be produced. Latin
name: Olea europaea.
ombrogenous ombrogenous adjective referring to an
area of land, such as a bog, or a plant that
receives water only from rain and is there-
fore low in nutrients
ombudsman ombudsman noun an official who inves-
tigates complaints by the public against
government departments or other large or-
ganisations
omnivore omnivore noun an animal that eats both
plant and animal foods. ı carnivore, detri-
tivore, frugivore, herbivore (NOTE: Hu-
mans and pigs are examples of omni-
vores.)
omnivorous omnivorous adjective referring to an an-
imal that eats both plant and animal foods
onshore onshore adjective, adverb 1. situated on
land ć onshore oil and gas exploration 2.
towards the coast ć an onshore breeze
ontogeny ontogeny noun the development of a liv-
ing organism from its earliest stage to ma-
turity
ooze ooze
,
ooze
mud
noun
soft
mud,
especial-
ly at the bottom of a lake or the sea. Also
opacity
152
called ooze mud í verb (of liquid) to flow
slowly
opacity opacity noun the characteristic of not al-
lowing light or other rays to pass through ć
Sometimes it is possible to estimate the
depth and opacity of the layer of mist or fog
from ground observations.
opaque opaque adjective referring to something
that does not allow light or other rays to
pass through it
OPEC OPEC abbr Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries
open-air open-air adjective referring to the envi-
ronment outside buildings
open open burner burner noun an outdoor site where
waste such as automobile tyres or rags is
destroyed by fire, thereby causing atmos-
pheric pollution
open open burning burning noun the burning of waste
matter in the open air, creating pollution
with smoke
open-cast open-cast mining mining noun a form of min-
ing in which the mineral is dug from the
surface instead of from under the ground.
Also called open-cut mining, strip min-
ing
open open country country, open land noun 1. an
area of land that is not built on 2. an area of
land that does not have many trees or high
mountains 3. any area of land that is moun-
tain, moor, heath or down or is registered as
common land
open-cut open-cut mining mining noun same as open-
cast mining
open open dump dump noun a place where waste is
left on the ground and not buried in a hole
open open land land noun land with no trees or
bushes and no buildings
open open ocean ocean, open sea noun the ocean
or sea well away from the coast
operation operation noun an organised activity de-
signed to achieve something ć The clean-
up operation after the oil spill lasted for
months.
oppor tunist opportunist
,
opportunistic
adjective
referring to an organism that quickly colo-
nises an available habitat
opportunistic opportunistic weed weed noun a weed that
grows in a wide range of conditions
optic optic adjective referring to the eye or to
sight
optimal optimal adjective best or most effective
optimal optimal foraging theory foraging theory noun the the-
ory that through evolution predators have
adapted to maximise energy gain and mini-
mise energy loss when foraging
optimise optimise
,
optimize
verb
to
make
some-
thing as efficient as possible
optimum optimum adjective referring to the point at which the condition or amount of something is the best ć optimum height í noun the point at which the condition or amount of something is best optimum sustainable population optimum sustainable population noun the number of individuals that are needed to maintain the existence of the species oral oral adjective referring to the mouth, or to speech orbit orbit noun the curved path of a planet or satellite around another astronomical object
orbital orbital adjective referring to the movement of an object around something orbital orbital road road noun a road which goes right round a town, at some distance from the built-up areas. Compare ring road order order noun 1. a command or instruction 2. a classification of animals or plants, formed of several families (NOTE: Orders of ani-
mals have names ending in -a; orders of plants have names ending in -ales.) 3. the way in which things are arranged so that
one comes before another ˽ in order in the correct order ˽ in order of according to ć
in order of importance / priority / frequency
˽ in ascending order with the lowest number or letter of the alphabet first ˽ in
descending order with the highest number
or letter of the alphabet first ˽ in reverse
order in the opposite order from what is
usual ˽ out of order in the wrong order ore ore noun a mineral found in the ground
containing a metal which can be extracted from it ć Iron ore deposits were found in
the mountains. ć The ore is heated to a high temperature to extract the metal.
ore-bearing ore-bearing adjective referring to rock that contains ore organ organ noun a part of an organism that is distinct from other parts and has a particular function, e.g. an eye or a flower organic organic adjective 1. referring to a compound containing carbon 2. referring to food produced using only a restricted number of permitted pesticides and fertilisers, or to the production of such food 3. referring to organs in the body
COMMENT: Organic is a term that is used loosely in the media and elsewhere to mean ‘natural’ or ‘wholesome’ with reference to food. In fact, in the UK organic food can only be labelled as such if it meets various official criteria controlling the way in which it has been produced.
organic organic agriculture agriculture noun same as or-
ganic farming
153
outback
organically organically adverb using only a restrict-
ed number of permitted pesticides and fer-
tilisers in growing a crop
organic organic carbon carbon noun carbon that comes
from an animal or plant. Abbr OC
organic organic conversion conversion noun the process
of converting from conventional agricul-
ture to organic production
organic organic farming farming noun a method of
farming which does not involve the use of
artificial fertilisers or pesticides ć Organic
farming may become more economic than
conventional farming.
organic organic fertiliser fertiliser noun a fertiliser made
from dead or decaying plant matter or ani-
mal wastes, e.g. leaf mould, farmyard ma-
nure or bone meal
organic organic material material, organic matter noun
carbon-based material derived from organ-
isms, e.g. decomposed plant material or an-
imal dung
organic organic matter matter noun 1. a combination
found in soil of plant material that is de-
composing, microorganisms such as fungi,
and humus. Also called soil organic mat-
ter 2. same as organic material
organics organics noun 1. the practice of manag-
ing the land and growing food according to
organic principles 2. organic material of all
types including waste
organic organic waste waste noun substances consist-
ing of material containing carbon com-
pounds and disposed of as waste, e.g. plant
or animal remains. Compare inorganic
waste
organism organism noun any individual life form
that is able to reproduce and grow, e.g. a
plant, animal or microorganism
Organization of Petroleum Export- Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
ing Countries noun an association set
up in 1960 to represent the interests of the
major oil-exporting nations, to fix the price
of oil and the amounts which can be pro-
duced. Abbr OPEC
organochlorine organochlorine noun 1. a chlorinated
hydrocarbon 2. a chemical compound con-
taining chlorine, used as an insecticide
organophosphate organophosphate noun a synthetic in-
secticide that attacks the nervous system,
e.g. chlorpyrifos
organophosphorus organophosphorus compound
compound
noun an organic compound containing
phosphorus
organo-tin organo-tin paint paint noun a toxic paint
based on tin that is used on ships’ hulls to
prevent the growth of marine organisms
origin origin noun 1. a point where something
starts or comes from ć the origin of life ć
An air mass takes on the characteristics of its place of origin. 2. a base from which a map projection is drawn ć The value of convergence used is correct at the parallel of origin. ı centre of origin
ornamental ornamental adjective 1. for use as decoration 2. referring to a plant that is grown for its appearance rather than for food or other use í noun an ornamental plant, e.g. a rose or orchid
ornithological ornithological adjective referring to ornithology
ornithologist ornithologist noun a scientist who studies birds
ornithology ornithology noun the study of birds
orographic orographic effect effect noun an atmospheric disturbance that is caused by, or relating to, the existence of mountains or other high land
orphan orphan site site noun an area of contaminated land for which both polluter and owner reject responsibility
orthotropism orthotropism noun growth directly towards or away from a stimulus
oscillation oscillation noun a regular movement from side to side
osmoregulation osmoregulation noun also called os-
motic regulation
osmosis osmosis noun the movement of molecules from a solution of one concentration to a solution of a higher concentration through a semi-permeable membrane until the two solutions balance in concentration osmotic osmotic pressure pressure noun the pressure required to prevent the flow of a solvent into a solution through a semi-permeable membrane
osmotic osmotic regulation regulation noun the control of osmotic pressure within cells and simple organisms, by which they maintain a balance between the fluid inside them and that outside in their environment. Also called
osmoregulation
OSPAR OSPAR noun an international agreement to prevent pollution of the northeast Atlantic and its coasts by continuously reducing discharges, emissions and losses of hazardous substances, with the aim of eventually achieving very low or zero concentrations. Full form Oil Spill Preparedness and Re-
sponse
OTEC OTEC abbr Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
outback outback noun a large area of wild or semi-wild land in the centre of the continent of Australia ć Many wild animals which used to live in the outback are be-
outbreak
154
coming rare as the land is reclaimed for
farming.
outbreak outbreak noun the sudden start of some-
thing ć an outbreak of disease ć Showers
are local outbreaks of precipitation from
detached cumulus or cumulonimbus.
outbreeding outbreeding noun 1. breeding between
individuals that are not related 2. fertilisa-
tion between two or more separate plants,
rather than within a flower or between
flowers of the same plant ć Outbreeding
occurs in broad beans. ̈ compare in-
breeding
outcompete outcompete verb to be more successful
than other organisms of the same or differ-
ent species in obtaining access to the same
limited resources such as food, light or a
mate
outcrop outcrop noun an area of rock that stands
out above the surface of the soil í verb (of
rock) to stand out above the surface of the
soil
outer outer adjective furthest away from the
centre ć The outer coating of the seed is
very hard.
outer outer suburbs suburbs noun a residential part of
a town, a long way from the centre, but still
within the built-up area
outfall outfall noun a pipe from which sewage,
either raw or treated, flows into a river, lake
or the sea. Also called outfall sewer
outflow outflow noun a flow in an outward direc-
tion ć The outflow valve is controlled by
the cabin pressure controller.
outgrowth outgrowth noun something that is grow-
ing from a main part
outlet outlet noun a passage or pipe through
which something can leave ć a water outlet
outlier outlier noun 1. an organism that occurs
naturally some distance away from the
principal area in which its species is found
2. an area in which younger rocks are com-
pletely surrounded by older rocks
outline outline noun 1. a summary ć an outline
of the latest research results 2. a line that
shows the external shape of something ć
The drawing shows the outline of the coast.
í verb to form or draw round the shape of
something ć The additional material is
outlined in red.
outline planning permission outline planning permission
noun
permission in principle to build a property
on a piece of land, but not the final approval
because further details must be submitted
output output noun the product of a process ć
Air density will affect the output of the en-
gine.
outwash outwash noun the water which flows from a melting glacier and creates deposits of silt outwash outwash deposit deposit, outwash fan noun a silt deposit formed by a melting glacier ova ova plural of ovum ovary ovary noun 1. one of two organs in a woman or female animal that produce ova or egg cells and secrete the female hormone oestrogen 2. the part of a flower that contains the ovules, at the base of a carpel over- over- prefix 1. above 2. excessively overburden overburden noun 1. in strip mining, the soil and rock lying on top of a layer of coal 2. a mineral which is dug away from the surface of the land to expose the coal or mineral below overcropping overcropping noun the practice of growing too many crops on poor soil, which has the effect of greatly reducing soil fertility overcultivated overcultivated adjective referring to land that has been too intensively cultivated and has reduced fertility overexploit overexploit verb 1. to work mineral deposits or use other resources in an uncontrolled way until there is very little left 2. to cultivate soil too intensely overexploitation overexploitation noun the uncontrolled use of natural resources until there is very little left ć Overexploitation has reduced herring stocks by half. overfertilisation overfertilisation noun the application of too much fertiliser to land (NOTE: Excess
fertiliser draining from fields can cause pol-
lution of the water in rivers and lakes.)
overfish overfish verb to catch so many fish that the fish do not reproduce quickly enough and become rare overfishing overfishing noun the practice of catching so many fish that the fish do not reproduce quickly enough and become rare ć Herring stocks have been reduced by overfishing. overflow overflow noun excess liquid that flows over the edge of a container í verb to flow over the edge of a container ć The floods made the reservoir overflow. ć The river overflowed its banks and flooded hundred
of hectares of farmland. overgraze overgraze verb to graze a pasture so much that it loses nutrients and is no longer able enough to provide food for livestock overgrazing overgrazing noun the practice of grazing a pasture so much that it loses nutrients and is no longer able to provide food for livestock ć Overgrazing has led to soil erosion and desertification.
155
ozone layer
overland overland flow flow noun a movement of rainwater or water melting from snow or ice over the surface of the ground in a broad thin layer overnutrition overnutrition noun 1. the eating of too much food, or food containing too many calories 2. same as eutrophication overpopulate overpopulate verb to increase the population of a place so much that available space, food, water or other resources are not adequate to support it overpopulated overpopulated adjective referring to a place containing too large a population to be adequately supported by the available resources overproduction overproduction noun the production of more of something than is wanted or needed overshot overshot wheel wheel noun a type of waterwheel where the water falls on the wheel from above. It is more efficient than an undershot wheel, where the water flows underneath the wheel. overstorey overstorey noun the topmost vegetation layer in a forest, formed by the tallest trees. Also called overwood overuse overuse noun the excessive use of something ć The overuse of pesticides is contaminating the rivers. í verb to use something too much ć Farmers are warned against overusing synthetic fertilisers. overwinter overwinter verb 1. to spend winter in a particular place ć The herds overwinter on the southern plains. 2. to remain alive though the winter ć Many plants will not overwinter in areas that have frost. overwood overwood noun same as overstorey ovicide ovicide noun a substance, especially an insecticide, that kills eggs
oviparous oviparous adjective referring to an animal that carries and lays eggs. Compare vi-
viparous
ovule ovule noun an immature egg or an unfertilised seed ovum ovum noun a female egg cell which, when fertilised by a spermatozoon, begins to develop into an embryo (NOTE: The plural is
ova.)
ox-bow ox-bow lake lake noun a curved lake formed when a large curve of a river becomes cut off from the main body of the river by silt oxidant oxidant noun same as oxidising agent oxidation oxidation noun a chemical reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen with loss of electrons oxidation oxidation ditch ditch, oxidation pond noun a ditch or pond where sewage is purified by
allowing biochemical reactions to take
place in it over a period of time
oxidation–reduction oxidation–reduction noun a reversible
chemical reaction between two substances
where one is oxidised and the other is re-
duced
oxide oxide noun a chemical compound of oxy-
gen
oxidise oxidise
,
oxidize
verb
to
form
an
oxide
by
the reaction of oxygen with another chemi-
cal substance ć Over a period of time, the
metal is oxidised by contact with air.
oxidising oxidising agent agent noun a substance that
forms an oxide with another substance.
Also called oxidant
oxidising oxidising atmosphere atmosphere noun a mixture
of gases that contains oxygen and converts
elements into oxides through chemical re-
actions
oxychlorination oxychlorination noun the process of
neutralising bacteria in water intended for
drinking
oxygen oxygen noun a colourless, odourless gas,
essential to human life, constituting 21%
by volume of the Earth’s atmosphere ć Our
bodies obtain oxygen through the lungs in
respiration. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is
O; the atomic number is 8 and the atomic
weight is 16.00.)
oxygenate oxygenate verb to become filled with ox-
ygen
oxygenation oxygenation noun the process of be-
coming filled with oxygen
ozone ozone noun poisonous form of oxygen
found naturally in the atmosphere, which is
toxic to humans at concentrations above 0.1
parts per million. Formula: O3.
ozone-depleting substance ozone-depleting substance
noun a
substance that is known to have unfavoura-
ble effects on the ozone layer in the atmos-
phere. Abbr ODS
ozone ozone depletion depletion noun the loss of ozone
from the atmosphere
ozone-depletion potential ozone-depletion potential
, ozone-
depleting potential noun a measurement
of the effect of a substance on reducing the
amount of ozone in the atmosphere. Abbr
ODP
ozone-friendly ozone-friendly adjective not harmful to
the ozone layer in the atmosphere
ozone ozone hole hole noun a thin part in the ozone
layer in the atmosphere, which forms over
Antarctica each year at the end of winter
ozone ozone layer layer noun the layer of ozone in
the atmosphere between 20 and 50 km
above the surface of the Earth. Also called
ozonosphere
ozone monitoring device
156
COMMENT: The ozone layer in the stratosphere acts as a protection against the harmful effects of the Sun’s radiation, and
the destruction or reduction of the layer has the effect of allowing more radiation to pass through the atmosphere with harmful results such as skin cancer in humans. The first ozone hole was detected over
Antarctica.
ozone monitoring device ozone monitoring device
noun a de-
vice which measures the levels of ozone in the atmosphere
ozone ozone precursor precursor noun a chemical which contributes to the formation of
ozone, e.g. nitrogen oxide
ozonosphere ozonosphere noun same as ozone layer
P
PP symbol phosphorus
pack pack noun a group of predatory animals
which live and hunt together (NOTE: Pack is
especially used of animals of the dog family
such as wolves, but also of other animals
such as killer whales.)
package package noun 1. an object or set of ob-
jects wrapped in a covering 2. a group of
different items brought together ć a pack-
age of measures designed to reduce con-
sumption
packaged packaged adjective referring to items
wrapped in a covering
packaging packaging noun the set of coverings
used to wrap an object, especially a product
that is going to be transported, displayed
and sold (NOTE: Packaging may be paper,
cardboard, plastic, polystyrene or some
other material.)
packaging packaging material material noun a type of
covering such as paper or plastic used to
wrap an object, especially a product that is
going to be transported, displayed and sold
ć Many of the packaging materials we used
to throw away may now be re-used or recy-
cled to save energy and raw materials.
packaging packaging waste waste noun material such as
paper or plastic used as packaging that is
thrown away
COMMENT: In the European Union, mem-
ber states must have systems for the return and/or collection of used packaging to attain the following targets: recovery 50% to 60% and recycling 25% to 45%, with a minimum of 15% by weight for each pack-
aging material. There are also requirements covering the composition and the re-use, recovery and recycling of packaging.
paddy paddy
,
padi
noun
a
rice
crop
growing
in
shallow water ć Paddies can be breeding
grounds for mosquitoes.
paddy paddy field field noun a field filled with shallow water, in which rice is grown ć It is thought that paddy fields may contribute to the methane in the atmosphere. PAH PAH abbr polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon paint paint noun a liquid substance put on a surface to give it colour or to protect it ć Antifouling paint used on ships’ hulls kills marine organisms. Palaearctic Palaearctic Region Region noun a biogeographical region, part of Arctogea covering Europe, North Asia and North Africa palaeo- palaeo- prefix ancient or prehistoric
(NOTE: The US spelling is paleo-.)
palaeoecology palaeoecology noun the study of the ecology of fossils palaeomagnetism palaeomagnetism noun the study of the magnetism of ancient rocks palm palm noun a large tropical plant like a tree with branching divided leaves, that produces fruits which give oil and other foodstuffs palmate palmate adjective referring to leaves that split from a central part like the fingers on a hand. Also called digitate palm palm oil oil noun an edible oil produced from the seed or fruit of an oil palm paludal paludal adjective relating to or living in swamps or marshes palynology palynology noun the scientific study of pollen, especially of pollen found in peat and coal deposits. Also called pollen anal-
ysis
pampas pampas noun a wide area of grassy plains found in South America PAN PAN abbr peroxyacetyl nitrate pan- pan- prefix affecting everything or everywhere pandemic pandemic adjective, noun referring to an epidemic disease which affects many parts of the world. ı endemic, epidemic
157
parts per million
panemone panemone noun a type of windmill in
which flat surfaces spin round a vertical
axis
panicle panicle noun a flower head (inflores-
cence) with many branches that carry small
flowers, e.g. the flower head of a rice plant
paper paper noun a substance made from the
pulp of wood, rags or fibre rolled flat into
sheets, used for writing on, printing, wrap-
ping objects and other purposes
para- para- prefix 1. similar to 2. changed or be-
yond
paraben paraben noun a chemical used in toilet-
ries and as a food preservative (NOTE: It is
reported as a possible cause of reproduc-
tive or developmental problems because its
action is similar to that of the hormone oes-
trogen.)
paraffin paraffin noun 1. a saturated aliphatic hy-
drocarbon 2. same as paraffin oil
paraffin paraffin oil oil noun oil produced from pe-
troleum, used as a fuel in aircraft engines,
for domestic heating and lighting, and as a
solvent. Also called paraffin
parallel parallel noun 1. same as parallel of lati-
tude 2. a line representing a parallel on a
map or chart
parallel parallel of latitude of latitude noun an angular dis-
tance north or south of the Earth’s equator,
measured in degrees, minutes and seconds,
along a meridian. Also called parallel
parameter parameter noun 1. a factor that defines
the limits or actions of something ć The X
parameter defines the number of charac-
ters displayed across a screen. ć The size
of the array is set with this parameter. 2. a
variable quantity or value for which a
measurement is attempted, e.g. mean
height
parapatric parapatric speciation speciation noun the devel-
opment of new species in areas which are
next to each other and so not completely
isolated
paraquat paraquat noun a herbicide that destroys a
wide range of plants by killing their foliage
and becomes inert on contact with the soil
parasite parasite noun a plant or animal which
lives on or inside another organism, the
host, and derives its nourishment and other
needs from it ć a water-borne parasite
parasitic parasitic adjective referring to animal or
plant parasites ć a parasitic worm ć Dod-
der is a parasitic plant.
parasiticide parasiticide noun a substance that kills
parasites
parasitise parasitise
,
parasitize
verb
to
live
as
a
parasite on another organism ć Sheep are
parasitised by flukes.
parasitism parasitism noun a state in which one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, and derives its nourishment and other needs from it
parasitoid parasitoid noun an organism that is a parasite only at one stage in its development
parasitoidism parasitoidism noun the state of being a parasite only at one stage of development, as when an insect lays eggs inside the body of a host
parasitology parasitology noun the scientific study of parasites
parcel parcel noun 1. a package 2. a plot of land 3. a quantity of wood, either growing in a forest or cut down, which is sold
parent parent noun a male or female that has produced offspring
parent parent rock rock noun same as mother rock
park park noun an area of open land used as a place of recreation
parkland parkland noun grazed grassland or heathland with large individual trees or small groups of large trees, usually part of a designed and managed landscape
parthenocarpy parthenocarpy noun the production of seedless fruits without fertilisation having taken place
parthenogenesis parthenogenesis noun a form of reproduction in which an unfertilised ovum develops into an individual
particle particle noun 1. a very small piece of a substance ć soil particles ć Particles of volcanic ash were carried into the upper atmosphere. 2. ‘ elementary particle
particulate particulate adjective made up of separate particles í noun a tiny solid piece of a substance
COMMENT: The finest particulates in the air are the most dangerous pollutants as they are easily inhaled into the bronchioles in the lungs. Fine particulates from volcanic eruptions can enter the stratosphere and have a cooling effect by preventing the heat from the Sun reaching the Earth’s surface, i.e. the opposite of the greenhouse effect.
particulate particulate matter matter noun any matter in the atmosphere except water, including dust particles, pollen or particles produced by internal combustion engines. Abbr PM
parts parts per billion per billion noun a measure of the concentration of a substance in a gas, liquid or solid. Abbr ppb
parts parts per million per million noun a measure of the concentration of a substance in a gas, liquid or solid. Abbr ppm
passage
158
passage passage noun 1. a long narrow channel or corridor 2. a movement from one place to another passerine passerine noun a bird belonging to an order of birds which typically come to rest on branches. Order: Passeriformes. í adjective referring to a passerine passive passive adjective not actively participating. Opposite active passive passive smoking smoking noun a situation in which someone breathes in tobacco smoke from the atmosphere around them. This process may cause lung cancer. pastoral pastoral adjective 1. referring to agriculture based on grazing animals 2. referring to land available for pasture pastoralist pastoralist noun a farmer who keeps grazing animals on pasture ć The people most affected by the drought in the Sahara are nomadic pastoralists. pasture pasture noun land covered with grass or other small plants, used by farmers as a feeding place for animals ć a mixture of
pasture and woodland ć Their cows are on
summer pastures high in the mountains. ˽
to put cattle out to pasture to put cattle onto land covered with grass or other small plants í verb to put animals onto land covered with grass or other small plants ć Their cows are pastured in fields high in the
mountains. pasture pasture agronomist agronomist noun a person who specialises in the study of types of plants grown in pastures pastureland pastureland noun land covered with grass or other small plants, used by farmers as a feeding place for animals patch patch dynamics dynamics noun a process in which the disturbance of a community creates gaps which are then colonised by the same or another species path path noun 1. a way from one place to another, especially one travelled on foot. ı bridle path, cycle path, footpath 2. a way to achieve something patho- patho- prefix disease pathogen pathogen noun an agent, usually a microorganism, that causes a disease pathogenesis pathogenesis noun the origin, production or development of a disease pathogenetic pathogenetic adjective referring to pathogenesis pathogenic pathogenic adjective able to cause or produce a disease pathogenicity pathogenicity noun the ability of a pathogen to cause a disease pathogenic pathogenic organism organism noun an organism responsible for causing a disease
pathological pathological adjective 1. referring to a disease 2. caused by a disease 3. indicating a disease
pathologist pathologist noun 1. a scientist who specialises in the study of diseases 2. a person who checks tissue and other samples for evidence of disease 3. a doctor who examines dead bodies to find out the cause of death
pathology pathology noun the study of diseases and the changes in structure and function which diseases can cause
pathway pathway noun 1. a path, especially a footpath, or a route 2. the route by which a contaminant can reach a receptor and cause harm
Pb Pb symbol lead PBB PBB abbr polybrominated biphenyl
PCB PCB abbr polychlorinated biphenyl
PCF PCF abbr process(ed) chlorine-free
PCW PCW abbr post-consumer waste
PE PE abbr production efficiency
peak peak noun 1. the top of a mountain 2. the highest point of something ć The intensity of solar radiation reaches a peak around noon.
peak peak average average noun the average of all the highest points on a graph or in a series of figures
peak peak traffic traffic noun the largest number of vehicles that travel in an area within a specific period ć The hours of peak traffic at the junction are 8–9 a.m. and 5–7 p.m.
peasouper peasouper noun a type of thick dark yellow fog caused by sulfur particles from burning coal, formerly common in the winter time in London before the 1960s
(informal )
peat peat noun the accumulated partly decayed mosses and other plants which form the soil of a bog, often forming a deep layer (NOTE:
Peat was used as a fuel in some areas and was widely used in gardens to improve the texture of the soil or mixed with soil or other materials to grow plants in pots. These practices are now discouraged in order to prevent the overuse of peat bogs.)
peat peat bog bog noun an area of wet acidic land, low in nutrients, in which peat has formed
peat-free peat-free adjective referring to material that does not contain peat
peat-free peat-free compost compost noun material in which plants can be grown in pots that does not contain peat ć Coir fibre from coconut shells can be used as a peat-free compost.
peatland peatland noun an area of land covered with peat bog
159
permaculture
peaty peaty adjective containing peat ć peaty
soil ć peaty water
pebble pebble noun a small, often rounded piece
of rock, less than 64mm in diameter
pedestrian pedestrian noun a person who travels by walking
pedestrian pedestrian area area, pedestrian zone
noun a part of a town where only people
who are walking are allowed
pedestrianisation pedestrianisation
,
pedestrianization
noun the process of making part of a town
into an area where only people who are
walking are allowed
pedestrianise pedestrianise
,
pedestrianize
verb
to
make part of a town into an area where only
people who are walking are allowed
pedicel pedicel noun a stalk that carries a single
flower within a flower head (inflorescence)
peduncle peduncle noun 1. a stalk-like structure
such as that attaching a polyp to the rock on
which it lives 2. the main flower stalk of a plant
pelagic pelagic adjective referring to the top and
middle layers of sea water. Compare de-
mersal
pelagic pelagic deposits deposits plural noun material that has fallen to the sea floor. Also called
pelagic sediment
pelagic pelagic species species noun fish that live at or
near the surface of the sea, e.g. swordfish, tuna, anchovies and sardines
pelagic pelagic zone zone noun the part of the sea
that is not near the shore and not immedi-
ately above the seabed
Pelton Pelton wheel wheel noun a type of water tur-
bine that has specially shaped buckets at-
tached to the edge of a wheel which are
struck by a jet of water
penalty penalty noun a fine or other action taken
to punish someone for doing something ć
The government has imposed penalties on
industrial concerns which emit too much
pollution.
peneplain peneplain noun a plain formed after
mountains have been completely eroded
peninsula peninsula noun a long narrow piece of land, surrounded on three sides by sea
peninsular peninsular adjective referring to a penin-
sula
pentad pentad noun a five-day period (NOTE:
This term is used especially in meteorolog-
ical forecasting and recording.)
per per preposition for each or every ć the rec-
ommended daily dose per person
perceived perceived noise level noise level noun a measurement of the loudness of a sound as heard by the human ear. Abbr PNL perceived noise level in decibels perceived noise level in decibels noun a measurement of sound pressure in decibels. Abbr PNdB percentage percentage noun 1. the proportion or rate equivalent to a total divided by a hundred ć Some 20% of infected plants died, a much higher percentage than expected. 2. an inexact proportion or amount ć Developing countries possess the largest percentage of the world’s rainforest.
percentile percentile noun one of a series of 99 figures below which a particular percentage of the total falls percolate percolate verb to move slowly through a quantity of solid particles ć Water percolates through the soil.
perennial perennial adjective lasting for many years í noun a plant that lives for a long time, flowering each year without dying. ı
annual, biennial (NOTE: In herbaceous perennials the parts above ground die back in winter, but the plant persists under the ground and produces new shoots in the spring. In woody perennials, permanent stems remain above the ground in the winter.)
perfluorocarbons perfluorocarbons plural noun a group of synthetic chemical compounds that are potent greenhouse gases. Abbr PFCs perform perform verb to carry out an action or role ć to perform a biological experiment ć The kidneys perform the function of eliminating nitrogenous waste.
perianth perianth noun the outer parts of a flower, made up of a calyx, corolla or both pericarp pericarp noun the part of a fruit that encloses the seed or seeds
period period noun 1. a length of time ć a 24 hour period ć a period of 3 minutes 2. an interval of geological time, the subdivision of an era and itself divided into epochs ć the Cretaceous period
periodic periodic adjective happening from time to time ć a periodic review of the company’s performance
periphyton periphyton noun a dense mass of strands of algal growth that covers the water surface between emerging aquatic plants
peri-urban peri-urban adjective on the edge of a built-up area permaculture permaculture noun a system of permanent agriculture, which involves carefully designing human habitats and food production systems
permafrost
160
permafrost permafrost noun ground that is perma-
nently frozen, as in the Arctic regions
(NOTE: Although the top layer of soil melts
and softens in the summer the soil beneath
remains frozen.)
permanent permanent adjective lasting or remain-
ing without change
permanent grassland permanent grassland
, permanent
pasture noun land that remains as grass-
land for a long time and is not ploughed
permeability permeability noun 1. the ability of a rock
to allow water to pass through it 2. the abil-
ity of a membrane to allow fluid or chemi-
cal substances to pass through it
permeable permeable adjective with a degree of
permeability (NOTE: The US term is pervi-
ous.)
peroxyacetyl peroxyacetyl nitrate nitrate noun a substance
contained in photochemical smog, which is
extremely harmful to plants. Abbr PAN
persist persist verb 1. to continue to exist ć
Snow cover tends to persist on north-facing
slopes of mountains. 2. (of a chemical
compound) to remain active without break-
ing down in the environment for a period of
time ć The chemical persists in the soil. 3.
(of a plant) to grow for several seasons
persistence persistence noun 1. the ability to persist
ć The persistence and movement of cols is
governed by the movement of the adjacent
pressure systems. 2. the ability of a chemi-
cal to remain active without breaking down
in the environment for a period of time 3.
(of a plant) the ability to grow for several
seasons
persistent persistent adjective 1. continuing for
some time ć persistent flickering of the
screen 2. remaining active without break-
ing down for some time ć persistent chem-
icals 3. growing for several seasons ć per-
sistent species
persistent insecticide persistent insecticide
, persistent
pesticide noun a chemical compound used
to kill insect or other pests that remains
without breaking down in the soil or in the
body of an animal and is passed from ani-
mal to animal through the food chain
personal personal adjective referring to direct re-
lationships between people ć The informa-
tion came through a personal contact.
personal communication personal communication
noun infor-
mation given by one person directly to an-
other
pervious pervious adjective US same as permea-
ble
pest pest noun an organism that carries disease
or harms plants or animals ć a spray to re-
move insect pests
pesticide pesticide noun a chemical compound used to kill pests such as insects, other animals, fungi or weeds pesticide pesticide residue residue noun the amount of a pesticide that remains in the environment after application Pesticides Pesticides Trust Trust noun a group that works to minimise and eventually eliminate the hazards of pesticides pesticide pesticide tax tax noun a proposed tax to restrict the use of pesticides PET PET abbr polyethylene terephthalate petal petal noun a single part of the corolla of a flower ć A buttercup flower has yellow petals.
petiole petiole noun the stalk of a leaf
petrifaction petrifaction noun the process of turning a substance into stone petrify petrify verb to turn a substance into stone petrochemical petrochemical noun a chemical derived from petroleum or natural gas petrochemistry petrochemistry noun 1. the scientific study of the chemical composition of petroleum and substances derived from it 2. the scientific study of the chemical composition of rocks petrol petrol noun a liquid made from petroleum, used as a fuel in internal combustion engines ć We are looking for a car with a low petrol consumption. (NOTE: The US
term is gasoline.)
petroleum petroleum noun oil that is extracted from the ground
petrology petrology noun the study of rocks and minerals (NOTE: Petrology has no direct
connection with petrol.)
PFA PFA abbr pulverised fuel ash PFBC PFBC abbr pressurised fluidised-bed combustion PFCs PFCs abbr perfluorocarbons
pH pH noun a measure of the acidity of a solution, determined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration, on a scale from 0 to 14 ć soil pH (NOTE: A pH
less than 7 is acid, and a pH more than 7 is alkaline.)
phalanx phalanx noun a plant species that invades a community as a dense mass. Compare
guerrilla
phase phase noun a stage or part of a larger process ć the vegetative phase ć A result may occur during any phase of the experiment.
phenology phenology noun the effect of climate on annually recurring phenomena such as animal migration or plant flowering
161
photo-oxidation
phenomenon phenomenon noun an event that exists and is experienced ć Chemical reactions in the atmosphere generate phenomena such as acid rain and photochemical smog.
(NOTE: The plural is phenomena.)
phenotype phenotype noun the physical characteristics of an organism, produced by its genes. Compare genotype
phenotypic phenotypic adjective relating to a phenotype
phenotypic phenotypic plasticity plasticity noun the ability of a phenotype to vary as a result of environmental influences on its genetic makeup
pheromone pheromone noun a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an animal, influencing the behaviour of another individual of the same species ć Some insects produce pheromones to attract mates.
pH pH factor factor noun ‘ pH
-philia -philia suffix attraction towards or liking for something
philoprogenitive philoprogenitive adjective referring to an organism that produces many offspring
phloem phloem noun the vascular tissue in a plant that is formed of living cells and conducts organic substances from the leaves to the rest of the plant. ı xylem
phosphate phosphate noun a salt of phosphoric acid which is formed naturally by weathering of rocks (NOTE: It is an essential plant
nutrient.)
COMMENT: Natural organic phosphates are provided by guano and fishmeal, otherwise phosphates are mined. Artificially produced phosphates are used in agriculture and are known as superphosphates because they are highly concentrated. Phosphates escape into water from sewage, especially waste water containing detergents, and encourage the growth of algae by eutrophication.
phosphorous phosphorous adjective containing phosphorus
phosphorus phosphorus noun a chemical element that is essential to biological life (NOTE:
The chemical symbol is P; the atomic number is 15 and the atomic weight is 30.97.)
phosphorus phosphorus cycle cycle noun a cycle by which phosphorus atoms are circulated through living organisms
phot- phot- prefix same as photo- (NOTE: used
before vowels)
photic photic zone zone noun same as euphotic zone. Compare aphotic zone
photo- photo- prefix light
photoautotrophic photoautotrophic adjective using light
energy to create a source of food. Compare
chemoautotrophic
photocell photocell noun same as photoelectric
cell
photochemical photochemical adjective referring to a
chemical reaction that is caused by light ć
Gases rise into the upper atmosphere and
undergo photochemical change.
photochemical oxidant photochemical oxidant
noun a sub-
stance which is produced by a chemical re-
action with light, e.g. ozone
photochemical pollution photochemical pollution
noun pollu-
tion caused by the action of light on chem-
icals in the lower atmosphere
COMMENT: When the atmosphere near
ground level is polluted with nitrogen ox-
ides from burning fossil fuels together with
hydrocarbons, ultraviolet light from the
Sun sets off a series of reactions that re-
sult in photochemical pollution, containing,
among other substances, ozone.
photochemical reaction photochemical reaction
noun a
chemical reaction started by the absorption
of light (NOTE: Photosynthesis and photo-
chemical smog are examples of such a re-
action.)
photochemical photochemical smog smog noun air pollu-
tion caused by the effect of strong sunlight
on nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons
emitted by motor vehicles, creating a harm-
ful haze of minute droplets in the air
photochemistry photochemistry noun the study of
chemical changes brought about by light
and other forms of radiation
photoconverter photoconverter noun a device that con-
verts energy from light into electric energy
photodecomposition photodecomposition noun the break-
ing down of a substance by the action of
light
photoelectric photoelectric cell cell noun a cell in which
light falling on the cell is converted to elec-
tricity. Also called photocell
photogenic photogenic adjective 1. produced by the
action of light 2. referring to an organism
producing light
photolysis photolysis noun the breakdown of a
chemical by light or other electromagnetic
radiation
photonastic photonastic adjective referring to pho-
tonasty
photonasty photonasty noun a response of plants to
light without movement towards the light
source. ı phototaxis
photo-oxidant photo-oxidant noun a chemical com-
pound produced by the action of sunlight
on nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons
photo-oxidation photo-oxidation noun a change in the
chemical constitution of a compound by the
photoperiod
162
action of sunlight ć Photo-oxidation
breaks down polluted air and converts the
gases to sulfur dioxide.
photoperiod photoperiod noun the period in every 24
hours when an organism is exposed to day-
light ć Short-day plants require a photope-
riod of less than 12 hours for flowering.
(NOTE: Photoperiod has an effect on activi-
ties such as flowering and mating.)
photoperiodicity photoperiodicity noun the degree to
which plants and animals react to changes
in the length of the period of daylight from
summer to winter
photoperiodism photoperiodism noun the response of
an organism in its growth and behaviour to
the amount of daylight it receives in every
24 hours
photophilic photophilic
,
photophilous
adjective
re-
ferring to an organism that grows best in
strong light
photorespiration photorespiration noun a reaction that
occurs in plants, alongside photosynthesis,
in which the plant fixes oxygen from the air
and loses carbon dioxide (NOTE: Photores-
piration reduces the production of sugars
by photosynthesis. Some crop plants have
been bred to reduce their photorespiration
rate.)
photosensitive photosensitive adjective 1. sensitive to
light 2. stimulated by light
photosensitivity photosensitivity noun the state of be-
ing sensitive to or stimulated by light
photosynthesis photosynthesis noun the process by
which green plants convert carbon dioxide
and water into sugar and oxygen using sun-
light as energy
photosynthesise photosynthesise
,
photosynthesize
verb to carry out photosynthesis ć Acid
rain falling on trees reduces their ability to
photosynthesise.
photosynthetic photosynthetic adjective referring to
photosynthesis
photosynthetic capacity photosynthetic capacity
noun the
calculation of the efficiency of conversion
of solar energy by photosynthesis
phototaxis phototaxis noun a movement of all or
part of an organism in response to light ei-
ther towards or away from it
phototroph phototroph noun an organism that ob-
tains its energy from sunlight. Compare
chemotroph
phototrophic phototrophic adjective obtaining energy
from sunlight. Compare chemotrophic
(NOTE: Plants are phototrophic.)
phototropic phototropic adjective referring to a plant
or a cell that turns or grows towards or
away from light
phototropism phototropism noun the response of
plants or cells to light by turning or grow-
ing towards or away from it (NOTE: Most
plant shoots show positive phototropism,
i.e. they grow towards the light.)
photovoltaic photovoltaic adjective converting the
energy from electromagnetic radiation such
as light into electricity
photovoltaic photovoltaic cell cell, photovoltaic panel
noun a device that converts the energy from
light into electricity. Also called photo-
voltaic, photovoltaic panel (NOTE: As light
strikes the cell the electrons in it become
mobile and create electricity.)
phreatic phreatic adjective referring to the water
table
phreatophyte phreatophyte noun a plant whose roots
go down into the water table
phthalate phthalate noun a chemical compound
used to soften plastics and in many toilet-
ries (NOTE: It is reported as a possible
cause of reproductive or developmental
problems because its action is similar to
that of the hormone oestrogen.)
pH pH value value noun ‘ pH
phycology phycology noun the scientific study of
algae
phylogenesis phylogenesis
,
phylogeny
noun
the
ev-
olutionary history of an organism or group
of organisms
phylum phylum noun a major subdivision in the
classification of organisms, below kingdom
(NOTE: The plural is phyla.)
physical physical adjective 1. referring to matter
and energy or the sciences dealing with
them, especially physics 2. referring to the
body rather than the mind ć physical dis-
comfort ć describe its physical appearance
3. being touched or able to be touched or
felt ć physical contact
physics physics noun the scientific study of mat-
ter, including electricity, radiation, magnet-
ism and other phenomena that do not
change the chemical composition of matter
physio- physio- prefix physiology
physiological physiological adjective referring to
physiology
physiological physiological ecology ecology noun the study
of the physiology of an individual and the
effects on function and behaviour in its
habitat
physiological specialisation physiological specialisation
noun a
phenomenon whereby some members of a
population look identical but differ bio-
chemically
physiologist physiologist noun a scientist who spe-
cialises in the study of the functions of liv-
ing organisms
163
pit
physiology physiology noun the scientific study of
the functions of living organisms
phyto- phyto- prefix plant
phytoaccumulation phytoaccumulation noun same as
phytoextraction
phytobenthos phytobenthos noun the plants that live
on the bottom of the sea, lake or river
phytochemical phytochemical noun a substance occur-
ring naturally in a plant í adjective refer-
ring to phytochemistry
phytochemistry phytochemistry noun the study of the
chemistry of substances found in plants
phytochrome phytochrome noun a pigment molecule
in plants which is sensitive to slight chang-
es in day length and controls the plant’s
growth timetable
phytoextraction phytoextraction noun the absorption by
plants of metal contaminants through their
roots and subsequent storage in their upper
parts, allowing the decontamination of
land. Also called phytoaccumulation
phytogeography phytogeography noun the study of
plants and their geographical distribution
phytome phytome noun a plant community
phytonutrient phytonutrient noun a substance in
plants that is beneficial to human health,
e.g. a vitamin or antioxidant
phytophagous phytophagous adjective referring to an
animal that eats plants
phytoplankter phytoplankter noun a single microscop-
ic plant that floats in the sea or in a lake
phytoplankton phytoplankton plural noun microscopic
plants that float in the sea or in a lake (NOTE:
Phytoplankton, formed mainly of diatoms
and using the sunlight in the surface layers
of the water to photosynthesise, are the ba-
sis of the food chain of almost all aquatic
animals.)
phytoplankton phytoplankton bloom bloom noun a large
mass of plankton that develops regularly at
different periods of the year and floats on
the surface of the sea or of a lake
phytoplanktonic phytoplanktonic adjective referring to
phytoplankton
phytoremediation phytoremediation noun the decontam-
ination of land by growing plants to absorb
heavy metals or other soil contaminants
phytosociology phytosociology noun the branch of
ecology concerned with the identification,
analysis, and classification of the species
composition of plant communities or plant
associations
phytostabilisation phytostabilisation
,
phytostabiliza-
tion noun the use of plants to trap soil con-
taminants in their roots and prevent them
from polluting ground water
phytotoxic phytotoxic adjective poisonous to plants
phytotoxicant phytotoxicant noun a substance that is
phytotoxic
phytotoxin phytotoxin noun a poisonous substance
produced by a plant
PIC PIC abbr product of incomplete combus-
tion
picogram picogram noun one trillionth of a gram
piezometer piezometer noun an instrument for
measuring the pressure of a liquid
piezometric piezometric
,
piezometrical
adjective
referring to the level reached by water un-
der its own pressure in a borehole or in a pi-
ezometer
pigment pigment noun a substance that gives col-
our to a part of an organism, e.g. melanin in
animals or chlorophyll in plants
pigmentary pigmentary adjective referring to or pro-
ducing pigment
pigmentation pigmentation noun the colouring of an
animal’s body, especially that produced by
deposits of pigment
pileus pileus noun 1. the domed or bell-shaped
part of the body of a jellyfish 2. the cap of
a mushroom or toadstool
pilot pilot project project noun a small-scale project
carried out to see whether a large-scale
project will work ć They are running a pi-
lot project in the area for three months be-
fore deciding on the next stage.
pine pine noun an evergreen coniferous tree.
Genus: Pinus. ć The north of the country is
covered with forests of pine.
pine pine cone cone noun a hard scaly structure
bearing the seeds of a pine tree
pine pine forest forest noun a large wooded area
containing mainly pines
pine pine tree tree noun same as pine
pinetum pinetum noun an area where different
types of pine have been planted
pinewood pinewood noun a wooded area contain-
ing mainly pines
pinna pinna noun 1. a thin, flat, tapering body
part such as a feather or fin 2. one of the
small leaves on a pinnate leaf
pinnate pinnate adjective with small leaves ar-
ranged on each side of a central stalk
pioneer pioneer
,
pioneer
species
noun
a
species
that is one of the first to begin to grow in a
previously unoccupied site, e.g. a moss
growing on a scree slope
pipeline pipeline noun a long tube through which
a fluid or gas flows from one place to an-
other
pisciculture pisciculture noun the breeding of edible
fish in special pools for sale as food
pit pit noun 1. a large hole in the ground, e.g.
for burying or planting something 2. an
pitch
164
area of land from which minerals, especially coal, are removed, and the buildings associated with the activity. Also called mine 3. a small indentation in a surface pitch pitch noun 1. the frequency of a sound (NOTE: A low-pitched sound has a low frequency and a high-pitched sound has a
high frequency.) 2. a dark sticky substance obtained from tar, used to make objects watertight 3. the angle of the blades of a wind or water turbine in relation to the flow of wind or water pith pith noun the tissue found in the centre of plant stems. Also called medulla pitted pitted adjective with small indentations ć a pitted surface placental placental mammal mammal noun same as eutherian (NOTE: All mammals are placental ex-
cept for monotremes and marsupials.)
plagioclimax plagioclimax noun a stage in the development of a plant ecosystem where the system is kept stable by human intervention, as in managed woodlands plagiosere plagiosere noun a succession of plants that takes a new course because of the effect of a biotic factor plague plague noun 1. an infectious disease that occurs in epidemics which kill many organisms 2. a widespread infestation by a pest ć A plague of locusts has invaded the region and is destroying crops. plain plain noun a level area of land with few trees í plural noun plains a large area of flat country with few trees, especially in the middle of North America plan plan noun 1. an organised way of doing something 2. a drawing that shows how something is arranged or how something will be built í verb to organise carefully how something should be done plane plane noun a deciduous hardwood tree, frequently grown in towns because of its resistance to air pollution. Genus: Platanus. planet planet noun a large body in the solar system, e.g. Earth, Mars or Mercury planetary planetary adjective referring to a planet plankter plankter noun a single microscopic animal or plant that lives and drifts in water
(NOTE: The plural is plankton.)
planktivorous planktivorous adjective referring to an animal that eats plankton plankton plankton plural noun the microscopic animals and plants that drift near the surface of the water, belonging to two groups: zooplankton, which are microscopic animals, and phytoplankton, which are microscopic plants capable of photosynthesis (NOTE: A
single organism is a plankter.)
planktonic planktonic adjective referring to plank-
ton ć Blooms are population explosions of
planktonic plants.
planner planner noun a person responsible for
planning an activity or development
planning planning noun 1. the careful organisation
of how something should be done 2. the or-
ganisation of how land and buildings are to
be used
planning planning authority authority noun a local au-
thority which gives permission for develop-
ment such as changes to existing buildings
or new use of land
planning planning controls controls plural noun legisla-
tion used by a local authority to control
building
planning planning department department noun a section
of a local authority which deals with re-
quests for planning permission
planning planning inquiry inquiry noun a hearing before
a government inspector relating to a deci-
sion of a local authority in planning matters
planning planning permission permission noun an official
agreement allowing a person or company to
plan new buildings on empty land or to alter
existing buildings
plant plant noun 1. an organism containing
chlorophyll with which it carries out photo-
synthesis 2. a very large factory or industri-
al site ć A nuclear power plant is to be built
near the town. 3. large heavy equipment
and vehicles í verb to put plants in the
ground ć to plant a crop of rice
plantation plantation noun 1. an estate, especially
in the tropics, on which large-scale produc-
tion of cash crops takes place (NOTE: Plan-
tations specialise in the production of a sin-
gle crop such as cocoa, coffee, cotton, tea
or rubber.) 2. an area of land planted with
trees for commercial purposes. Also called
plantation forest
plant plant breeding breeding noun the practice of pro-
ducing new forms of ornamental and crop
plants by artificial selection
plant plant community community noun a group of
plants growing together in an area
plant plant cover cover noun the percentage of an
area occupied by plants ć Plant cover at
these altitudes is sparse.
plant plant ecology ecology noun the study of the re-
lationship between plants and their envi-
ronment
plant genetic resources plant genetic resources
plural noun
the gene pool of plants, especially of plants
regarded as of value to humans for food or
pharmaceuticals
plant plant health health noun the areas related to the
prevention of pests and diseases affecting
165
poaching
plants and plant produce, including the
control of imports and exports
plant plant hormone hormone noun a hormone that af-
fects plant growth
plant plant kingdom kingdom noun the category of all
organisms classified as plants
plantlet plantlet noun BOT a young plant
PlantNet PlantNet noun a national network of bo-
tanic gardens, arboreta and other docu-
mented plant collections in Britain and Ire-
land
plant plant nutrient nutrient noun a mineral whose
presence is essential for the healthy growth
of plants
plant plant plankton plankton plural noun same as phy-
toplankton
plant plant population population noun the number of
plants found in a particular area
plant plant protection protection noun the activity of
protecting plants from disease by biocon-
trol, cultivation practices and especially by
the application of pesticides
plant plant science science noun the scientific study
of plants
plant plant scientist scientist noun a scientist who
studies plants
plant plant sociology sociology noun the study of com-
munities of plants
plastic plastic noun an artificial, usually organic,
material made from petroleum and used to
make many objects
COMMENT: Plastics are moulded by heating a substance under pressure and they retain their shape after being formed. Thermoplastics are heated while being shaped and can be heated and shaped
again for re-use. Thermosetting plastics are heated while being shaped but cannot be reheated for recycling. Waste plastics containing chlorine can produce hydrogen
chloride when incinerated. Plastics formed from ethylene or propylene (i.e. polyethylene and polypropylene) are not degradable and must be recycled or destroyed by incineration.
plastic plastic foam foam noun same as foam plastic
plasticiser plasticiser
,
plasticizer
noun
a
sub-
stance, usually a synthetic organic chemi-
cal, that is added to a material to make it
more flexible
plasticity plasticity noun variability in the growth
of a plant in response to differences in the
supply of resources
plate plate noun same as tectonic plate
plateau plateau noun an area of high flat land
(NOTE: The plural is plateaux.)
platinum platinum noun a rare metallic element
that does not corrode (NOTE: The chemical
symbol is Pt; atomic number is 78 and the
atomic weight is 195.09.)
Pleistocene Pleistocene
,
Pleistocene
epoch
noun
the period in the Earth’s evolution that last-
ed until about ten thousand years ago, in-
cluding the main Ice Ages
plough plough noun an agricultural implement
used to turn over the surface of the soil in
order to cultivate crops í verb to turn over
the soil with a plough (NOTE: [all senses]
The US spelling is plow.)
plug plug noun a round block of igneous rock
forming the central vent of an old volcanic
opening
plumbism plumbism noun lead poisoning caused
by taking in lead salts
plume plume noun 1. a tall cloud of smoke or gas
escaping from a factory chimney ć a gas
plume 2. a tall cloud of smoke or gas escap-
ing from a volcano 3. a long expanse of pol-
lution in ground water or an aquifer 4. a
cloud of powdered snow blowing from a
mountain crest 5. a large feather
plumule plumule noun the tiny structure in a plant
embryo from which a shoot will develop
plutonium plutonium noun a toxic and carcinogenic
radioactive element extracted from urani-
um ore (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Pu;
the atomic number is 94 and the atomic
weight is 244.)
PM PM abbr particulate matter
PNdB PNdB abbr perceived noise level in deci-
bels
pneum- pneum- prefix same as pneumo- (NOTE:
used before vowels)
pneumatophore pneumatophore noun a root growing
down from a branch in plants such as man-
grove growing in wet ground
pneumo- pneumo- prefix air, the lungs or breathing
pneumoconiosis pneumoconiosis noun a lung disease
in which fibrous tissue forms in the lungs
because the patient has inhaled particles of
stone or dust over a long period
PNL PNL abbr perceived noise level
Po Po symbol polonium
Poaceae Poaceae noun a very large family of
plants, the grasses, including bamboo and
cereals such as wheat and maize. Former
name Gramineae
poach poach verb to catch animals, birds or fish
illegally on someone else’s land
poacher poacher noun a person who catches ani-
mals, birds or fish illegally on someone
else’s land
poaching poaching noun the illegal activity catch-
ing animals, birds or fish on someone else’s
land
pod
166
pod pod noun 1. a container for several seeds,
e.g. a pea pod or bean pod 2. a small group
of whales, dolphins, or seals
podsol podsol
,
podzol
noun
a
type
of
acid
soil
where oxides have been leached from the
light-coloured top layer into a darker lower
layer through which water does not flow
and which contains little organic matter
podsolic podsolic
,
podzolic
adjective
referring
to
podsol
podsolic podsolic soil soil noun a soil that has formed
a podsol. Also called podsolised soil
podsolisation podsolisation
,
podsolization
noun
the
process by which a podsol forms
podsolised podsolised soil soil, podsolized soil noun
same as podsolic soil
poikilo- poikilo- prefix irregular or varied
poikilosmotic poikilosmotic adjective referring to an
aquatic animal whose body fluids change
by osmosis depending on the composition
of the surrounding water
poikilotherm poikilotherm noun same as ectotherm
pointer pointer noun an indication of how some-
thing will develop ć a pointer to future re-
search priorities
point point out out verb to make someone aware of
a piece of information
point point source source noun a discharge of a pol-
lutant or radiant energy from a single place,
e.g. a pipe, ship or installation. Compare
non-point source
poison poison noun a substance which can kill or
harm a person or animal when eaten, drunk,
breathed in or touched í verb to expose an
organism to a poison ć They were poisoned
by toxic fumes.
poisoning poisoning noun the act of killing or
harming an organism with a poison
poisonous poisonous adjective containing poison
ć a poisonous gas ć Some fungi are good
to eat and some are poisonous.
polar polar adjective referring to the North Pole
or South Pole ć polar air ć a polar region
polar polar ice cap ice cap noun a large area of thick
ice covering the regions around the North
or South Pole, which is slowly disappear-
ing as the Earth warms
polar polar vortex vortex noun same as circumpolar
vortex
polder polder noun a piece of low-lying land
which has been reclaimed from the sea and
is surrounded by earth banks, especially in
the Netherlands
pole pole noun 1. one of two opposite points on
an axis 2. the extreme north or south point
of the Earth’s axis ć A meridian is a line
joining pole to pole.
policy policy noun a plan for dealing with a situation ć transport policy political political adjective concerning politics
politician politician noun a person actively involved in politics, especially a member of a parliament or assembly
politics politics noun the practice or study of how to govern a country
pollard pollard noun a tree of which the branches have been cut back to a height of about 2 m above the ground í verb to cut back the branches on a tree every year or every few years to a height of about 2m above the ground. Compare coppice
pollen pollen noun the mass of small grains in the anthers of flowers which contain the male gametes
pollen pollen analysis analysis noun same as palynol-
ogy
pollen pollen count count noun a measurement of the amount of pollen in a sample of air (NOTE:
A high pollen count is bad for people who have hay fever.)
pollinate pollinate verb to transfer pollen from anther to stigma in a flower
pollination pollination noun the action of pollinating a flower (NOTE: There is no English noun
‘pollinisation’.)
pollinator pollinator noun 1. an organism which helps pollinate a plant, e.g. a bee or bird ć Some apple trees need to be planted with pollinators as they are not self-fertile. ć Birds are pollinators for many types of tropical plant. 2. a plant from which pollen is transferred by bees to pollinate another plant, especially a fruit tree, that is not selffertile ć Some apple and pear trees need to be planted with pollinators.
pollinosis pollinosis noun inflammation of the nose and eyes caused by an allergic reaction to pollen, fungal spores or dust in the atmosphere. Also called hay fever pollutant pollutant noun 1. a substance that causes pollution 2. noise, smell or another unwanted occurrence that affects a person’s surroundings unfavourably pollute pollute verb to discharge harmful substances in unusually high concentrations into the environment ć Polluting gases react with the sun’s rays. ć Polluted soil must be removed and buried.
polluter polluter noun a person or company that causes pollution
polluter-pays polluter-pays principle principle noun the principle that, if pollution occurs, the person or company responsible should be required to pay for the consequences of the pollution
167
polythene
and for avoiding it in future. Abbr PPP. ı
user-pays principle
polluting polluting agent agent noun a substance that
causes pollution
pollution pollution noun the presence of unusually
high concentrations of harmful substances
or radioactivity in the environment, as a re-
sult of human activity or a natural process
such as a volcanic eruption, or the unwant-
ed presence of noise or artificial light ć In
terms of pollution, gas is by far the cleanest
fuel. ć Pollution of the atmosphere has in-
creased over the last 50 years. ć Soil pol-
lution round mines poses a problem for
land reclamation.
pollution pollution abatement abatement noun a reduction
of pollution
pollution pollution alert alert noun a warning that pol-
lution levels are or will be high
pollution pollution charges charges plural noun the costs
of repairing or stopping environmental pol-
lution
pollution pollution control control, pollution preven-
tion noun the activity of taking measures to
limit the human activities that produce pol-
lution
polonium polonium noun a natural radioactive ele-
ment (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Po;
the atomic number is84 and the atomic
weight is 209.)
poly- poly- prefix many
polyandry polyandry noun a breeding arrangement
in which a female has several mates
polybrominated biphenyl polybrominated biphenyl
noun a
highly toxic aromatic compound contain-
ing benzene and bromine. It is used in plas-
tics, electrical equipment and fire-retardant
materials and is either banned or very re-
stricted in use in many countries. Abbr
PBB
polychlorinated biphenyl polychlorinated biphenyl
, polychlo-
robiphenyl noun one of a group of com-
pounds produced by chlorination of biphe-
nyl. Abbr PCB
COMMENT: PCBs are stable compounds and formerly were extensively used in electrical fittings and paints. Although they are no longer manufactured they are ex-
tremely persistent and remain in large quantities in landfill sites. They are not water-soluble and float on the surface of water where they are eaten by aquatic animals and so enter the food chain. PCBs
are fat-soluble, and are therefore easy to take into the system, but difficult to excrete.
polycondensed polycondensed plastic plastic noun a type of
plastic which can be recycled, e.g. nylon
polycrystalline polycrystalline silicon silicon noun silicon
used to manufacture photovoltaic panels
polyculture polyculture noun the rearing or growing
of more than one species of plant or animal
on the same area of land at the same time
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
noun one of a group of chemical com-
pounds which are carcinogenic. Abbr PAH
polyethylene polyethylene noun same as polythene
polyethylene terephthalate polyethylene terephthalate
noun a
type of plastic that can be recycled, used to
make artificial fibres and plastic bottles.
Abbr PET
polygamy polygamy noun a breeding arrangement
in which a male has several mates. Com-
pare monogamy
polyhaline polyhaline adjective (of water ) contain-
ing almost as much salt as sea water. Com-
pare mesohaline, oligohaline
polymorphic polymorphic adjective existing in differ-
ent forms
polymorphism polymorphism noun 1. the existence of
different forms during the life cycle of an
organism, as in the example of a butterfly,
which exists as a caterpillar, then a pupa,
before becoming a butterfly 2. the exist-
ence of different forms of an organism in a
social system, as in the example of bees,
which exist as workers, queens and drones
polymorphous polymorphous adjective same as poly-
morphic
polynyas polynyas noun in a frozen sea, an area of
water that is not frozen, created by local
water currents in northern oceans
polyp polyp noun a water animal that does not
swim about, e.g. a sea anemone
polyphagous polyphagous adjective referring to an
organism that eats more than one type of
food ć a polyphagous animal Compare
monophagous
polyphagy polyphagy noun the practice of eating
more than one type of food. Compare
monophagy
polypropylene polypropylene noun a type of plastic
used to make artificial fibres, bottles, pipes,
and other articles, which is not degradable
and must be recycled or destroyed by incin-
eration
polysaprobe polysaprobe noun an organism which
can survive in heavily polluted water
polysaprobic polysaprobic adjective referring to or-
ganisms that can survive in heavily polluted
water
polystyrene polystyrene noun a type of plastic which
can be made into hard lightweight foam by
blowing air or gas into it, used as an insu-
lating and packaging material
polythene polythene noun a type of plastic used to
make artificial fibres, packaging, boxes and
other articles. Also called polyethylene
polyvinyl chloride
168
polyvinyl polyvinyl chloride chloride noun full form of
PVC
pome pome noun a fruit with a core containing
the seeds enclosed in a fleshy part that de-
velops from the receptacle of a flower and
not from the ovary (NOTE: The fruit of ap-
ples and pears are pomes.)
pomology pomology noun the study of fruit cultiva-
tion
pond pond noun 1. a small area of still water
formed artificially or naturally. ı dew pond
2. an open storage area for liquids used in
industrial processes
pond pond life life noun the community of organ-
isms that live in a pond
pond pond scum scum noun a layer of green fresh-
water algae on the surface of stagnant water
pondweed pondweed noun a small plant that grows
in a pond
pool pool noun 1. a small area of still water, es-
pecially one formed naturally 2. an area of
oil or gas which collects in porous sedi-
mentary rock 3. a group or combination of
things or people. ı gene pool
POP POP abbr persistent organic pollutant
populate populate verb to fill an area with organ-
isms ć Starlings soon populated the whole
eastern seaboard of the USA.
population population noun 1. a number of people
living in a country or town ć The govern-
ment has decided to screen the whole pop-
ulation of the area. ć Population growth is
a major threat to conservation efforts. 2. a
number of individuals of the same species
living and breeding in a specific area ć The
fish population has been severely reduced.
population age structure population age structure
noun the
numbers of individuals of each age in a
population
population population change change noun the change in
a population caused by births and deaths
population concentration population concentration
noun the
number of individuals found in one place
population population control control noun the process of
limiting the number of individuals living in
a specific area
population population cycle cycle noun a series of regu-
lar changes in the population of a species,
usually a cycle in which the population
gradually increases and then falls away
again
population population decrease decrease noun a reduction
in the number of individuals living in a spe-
cific area
population population density density noun the number
of individuals living in a specific area
population dispersion population dispersion
noun the
spreading out of the members of a popula-
tion over an area
population population distribution distribution noun the pat-
tern of the spread of a population across an
area
population population dynamics dynamics noun the study
of changes in the number of individuals liv-
ing in a specific area
population population ecology ecology noun the study of
the factors determining abundance and
fluctuations in the population of a species
population population equilibrium equilibrium noun a situa-
tion in which the population stays at the
same level, because the number of deaths is
the same as the number of births
population population explosion explosion noun a rapid in-
crease in the number of individuals in a
population
population population growth growth noun an increase in
the size of a population
population population momentum momentum noun a con-
tinuation of population growth for several
generations after the population has
achieved the ability to replace itself
population population pyramid pyramid noun a graphical
representation showing the distribution of a
population according to age, sex or other
characteristics
population population transfer transfer noun a movement
of individuals from one place to another
pore pore noun 1. a tiny space in a rock forma-
tion or in the soil 2. same as stoma
porosity porosity noun the degree to which a sub-
stance is porous ć Clay has a lower poros-
ity than lighter soils.
porous porous adjective 1. referring to a sub-
stance with many holes or spaces 2. refer-
ring to rock which has many small pores in
it and can absorb water (NOTE: Porous rock
is not necessarily permeable.) 3. referring
to tissue which allows fluid to pass through
it ć a porous membrane
positive positive adjective having a value of more
than 0. Symbol +. Opposite negative
post- post- prefix after or later
postclimax postclimax noun a climax community
that still exists in a place where the environ-
mental conditions are no longer suitable for
it
post-consumer post-consumer waste waste noun any mate-
rial that has been used by someone and then
thrown away. Abbr PCW. Compare indus-
trial waste
potable potable adjective referring to water that is
suitable for drinking
potamology potamology noun the scientific study of
rivers
169
predation
potamoplankton potamoplankton plural noun plankton that live in rivers potamous potamous adjective referring to animals that live in rivers potash potash noun any potassium salt (NOTE:
Potash salts are crude minerals and contain much sodium chloride.)
potash potash fertiliser fertiliser noun a fertiliser based on potassium, e.g. potassium sulfate
potassium potassium noun a soft metallic element, essential to biological life (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is K; the atomic number is 19 and the atomic weight is 39.10.)
potent potent adjective having a strong effect ć a potent drug potential evapotranspiration rate potential evapotranspiration rate noun the amount of water transpired from a site assuming that there is no soil water limitation and complete vegetation cover potentially renewable resources potentially renewable resources plural noun resources that could be replaced by natural environmental processes if they are depleted
potentiate potentiate verb (of two substances) to increase each other’s toxic effects potentiation potentiation noun the degree of probable increased damage caused by the combined action of toxic substances compared with their individual effects
potting potting compost compost noun a mixture usually of soil and fibrous matter used to fill containers in which plants are grown (NOTE:
Peat has often been used in such composts, but alternatives such as coir fibre from coconut husks are being introduced in an attempt to conserve peat bogs.)
powder powder noun a substance made of ground or otherwise finely dispersed solid particles ć Dry chemical fire-extinguishers contain a non-toxic powder. powdered powdered adjective crushed to a fine dry dust powdery powdery adjective having the texture or appearance of powder ć The fungus forms as a powdery layer on leaves. power power noun the energy, especially electricity, which makes a machine or device operate
power power cable cable noun a wire carried across the countryside on pylons along which electric current travels from the power station where it was generated. Also called
power line
-powered -powered suffix operated by a particular type of energy ć a wind-powered pump power power failure failure noun a loss of electrical power supply
power power generation generation noun the production
of electricity from various energy sources
power power line line noun same as power cable
power power station station, power plant noun a
building with machines that make electric-
ity
power power surge surge noun a sudden increase in
the flow of electricity
ppb ppb abbr parts per billion
ppm ppm abbr parts per million
PPP PPP abbr polluter-pays principle
prairie prairie noun a large area of grass-covered
plains in North America, mainly without
trees (NOTE: The prairies of the United
States and Canada are responsible for
most of North America’s wheat production.
In Europe and Asia, the equivalent term is
steppe.)
pre- pre- prefix before or in front of
precautionary approach precautionary approach
, precau-
tionary principle noun a decision-making
policy to take action to prevent possible en-
vironmental damage even before there is
scientific evidence that damage will cer-
tainly occur
precession precession noun the tendency of the
Earth’s axis to wobble in space over a peri-
od of 23 000 years (NOTE: The Earth’s pre-
cession is one of the factors that results in
the planet receiving different amounts of
solar energy over long periods.)
precipitant precipitant noun a substance added to a
solution to make solid dissolved particles
separate from it
precipitate precipitate noun the mass of solid parti-
cles that separate from a solution during a
chemical reaction í verb to make solid dis-
solved particles separate from a solution
precipitation precipitation noun 1. water which falls
from clouds as rain, snow or hail ć Annual
precipitation is high in the mountain areas.
2. the action of forming solid particles in a
solution
precipitation scavenging precipitation scavenging
noun the
removal of particles of polluting substances
from the air in the form of acid rain
precise precise adjective exact or accurate
precision precision noun 1. exactness or accuracy
2. the accuracy to which a calculation is
performed, indicated as a specific number
of significant figures
precursor precursor noun a substance or cell from
which another substance or cell is devel-
oped ć The biggest share of ozone precur-
sors comes from emissions from vehicles.
predation predation noun the killing and eating of
other animals
predator
170
predator predator noun an animal that kills and
eats other animals ć The larvae are preda-
tors of aphids. Opposite prey
predatory predatory adjective referring to a preda-
tor ć predatory animals such as lions and
tigers
predictive agriculture predictive agriculture
noun same as
intensive agriculture
predominance predominance noun the condition of
being more powerful than others
predominant predominant adjective 1. more powerful
than others ć The predominant airstream is
from the west. 2. most common ć The pre-
dominant hair colour in this population is
black.
predominate predominate verb 1. to be more power-
ful than others 2. to be more common than
others ć A cold northerly airstream pre-
dominates during the winter.
preferendum preferendum noun the area where a spe-
cies flourishes best
preservation preservation noun the process of pro-
tecting something from damage or decay ć
the preservation of herbarium specimens ć
Food preservation allows some types of
perishable food to be eaten during the win-
ter when fresh food is not available.
preservationist preservationist noun a person who is
concerned to preserve things of natural or
historical interest for future generations
preservation preservation order order noun an order from
a local government department that stops a
building from being demolished or a tree
from being cut down
preservative preservative noun a substance added to
food to preserve it by slowing natural decay
caused by microorganisms (NOTE: In the
EU, preservatives are given E numbers
E200 – E297.)
preserve preserve noun US same as reserve 2 í
verb to protect something from damage or
decay
pressure pressure noun 1. the physical action of
squeezing or forcing 2. the force of some-
thing on its surroundings ć population
pressure ˽ pressure of numbers too many
of something ć The park is suffering from
pressure of numbers – it’s too popular with
visitors. 3. strong influence to make some-
one take or change an action
pressure pressure group group noun a group that tries
to influence governments and public opin-
ion on a specific issue ć The environmental
association set up a pressure group to lob-
by parliament.
pressurise pressurise
,
pressurize
verb
to
increase
the atmospheric pressure in a container
pressurised fluidised-bed com- pressurised fluidised-bed combustion
bustion noun an economic method of
burning low-grade coal in a furnace in
which air is blown upwards through the
burning fuel. Abbr PFBC
pressurised water reactor pressurised water reactor
noun a
type of nuclear reactor in which water is
heated to steam under high pressure to turn
turbines to generate electricity. Abbr PWR
prevailing prevailing wind wind noun the wind direction
that is most frequent in a specific place ć
The prevailing wind is from the south.
prevalence prevalence noun frequency of occur-
rence ć the prevalence of malaria in some
tropical countries ć the prevalence of cas-
es of malnutrition in large towns
prevalent prevalent adjective occurring frequently
ć a fungus which is more prevalent in de-
ciduous forests ć The disease is prevalent
in some African countries.
prevent prevent verb to stop something happen-
ing
prevention prevention noun an act or process of
stopping something from happening
prey prey noun an animal which is killed and
eaten by another ć Small mammals are the
prey of owls. Opposite predator í verb
prey on to kill and eat another animal ć
Water snakes prey on frogs and small fish.
primary primary adjective 1. first, basic or most
important 2. being first or before something
else. ı secondary, tertiary
primary primary commodity commodity noun a basic raw
material or food
primary primary consumer consumer noun an animal that
eats plants, which are producers in the food
chain. ı secondary consumer
primary primary forest forest noun a forest which orig-
inally covered a region before changes in
the environment brought about by human
activity
primary primary host host noun a host which a para-
site settles on finally
primary primary particulates particulates plural noun parti-
cles of matter sent into the air from fires, in-
dustrial processes, vehicle emissions, espe-
cially diesel, volcanic eruptions, sand-
storms and similar phenomena
primary primary producer producer noun an organism
which takes energy from outside an ecosys-
tem and channels it into the system, e.g. a
green plant (NOTE: Primary producers are
the first level in the food chain and are eat-
en by herbivores, which are secondary pro-
ducers.)
primary primary product product noun a product which
is a basic raw material, e.g. wood, milk or
fish
171
productive
primary primary production production noun the amount of organic matter formed by photosynthesis primary primary productivity productivity noun 1. the rate at which plants produce organic matter through photosynthesis 2. the amount of organic matter produced in a specific area over a specific period, e.g. the yield of a crop during a growing season primary primary sere sere noun the first plant community that develops on ground such as cooled lava from a volcano where no plants have grown before primary primary succession succession noun an ecological community that develops in a place where nothing has lived before primary primary treatment treatment noun the first stage in a treatment. In primary treatment of sewage, suspended solids are removed. primate primate noun a mammal such as a monkey, ape or human being prime prime meridian meridian noun a line of longitude situated at 0° and passing through Greenwich, England primitive primitive adjective 1. referring to very early or prehistoric times 2. referring to an early stage in an organism’s development primitive primitive area area noun an area of undeveloped land such as a forest that is protected as a national park or reserve primordial primordial adjective in a very early stage of development principal principal adjective most important priority priority effect effect noun a situation where the individual that arrives at a site first has the best chance of establishing itself priority priority habitat habitat noun a habitat that urgently needs to be protected because of its rarity or functional importance priority priority species species noun a species that is reducing in numbers and urgently needs to be protected prisere prisere noun the succession of plants from bare earth to climax vegetation probability probability noun a statistical assessment of how likely something is ć It is important
to identify the most significant threats to the population and what actions might be taken to reduce the probability of extinction. probability probability refuge refuge noun a situation where the number of competing species in an environment is limited by the bad state of the environment probe probe noun a device inserted into something to investigate the inside or to obtain information í verb to investigate the inside of something process process noun a series of actions or changes that achieve a particular result ć
the cooling process í verb 1. to deal with
something in a particular way ć The core
samples are being processed by the labora-
tory. 2. to produce something by treating a
raw material in a factory 3. to make a sub-
stance undergo a chemical reaction 4. to ex-
amine or to test samples
process process chemical chemical noun a chemical that
is manufactured by an industrial process
process chlorine-free process chlorine-free
, processed
chlorine-free adjective referring to paper
that has been made or recycled without the
use of chlorine to bleach it. Abbr PCF
processing processing noun the activity of treating
a raw material in a factory to make it into
something different
produce produce verb to make something ć a fac-
tory producing agricultural machinery ć a
drug which increases the amount of milk
produced by cows í noun what is produced
ć a stall selling fruit and other farm pro-
duce
producer producer noun 1. a person or company
that produces something 2. an organism
that takes energy from outside an ecosys-
tem and channels it into the system, e.g. a
green plants (primary producers) and her-
bivores (secondary producers). Compare
consumer (NOTE: Producers are the first
level in the food chain.)
producer producer gas gas noun same as air gas
producer responsibility producer responsibility
noun the
duty of manufacturers or producers to be
responsible for their products when these
eventually become waste, e.g. by taking
them back from consumers
product product noun 1. something that is pro-
duced by manufacture or in a chemical re-
action 2. the result or effect of a process
production production noun 1. the act of manufac-
turing or producing something 2. the
amount of heat or energy produced by the
biomass in an area
production production ecology ecology noun the study of
groups of organisms from the point of view
of the food which they produce
production efficiency production efficiency
noun the
amount of energy which is taken into the
biomass after consumption. Abbr PE
production production residue residue noun the waste left
after a production process
productive productive adjective 1. producing a lot
of something that can be used or sold ć
highly efficient and productive forms ć
making productive use of waste ground 2.
giving a good outcome ć a productive col-
laboration
productive agriculture
172
productive agriculture productive agriculture
noun same as
intensive agriculture
productivity productivity noun the rate at which
something is produced ć With new strains
of rice, productivity per hectare can be in-
creased.
product of incomplete combustion product of incomplete combustion
noun a compound formed when combus-
tion does not destroy all the material being
incinerated. Abbr PIC
profession profession noun all the chemical, physi-
cal and biological characters that determine
the position of an organism or species in an
ecosystem (NOTE: Examples are ‘aquatic
predator’ or ‘terrestrial herbivore’.)
profundal profundal zone zone noun an area of water in
a lake below the limnetic zone
programme programme noun a planned course of
action ć a research programme í verb 1. to
analyse or plan something ć The review is
programmed to take place next month. 2. to
make an organism behave in a particular
way ć Some plants are naturally pro-
grammed to respond to day length.
prohibit prohibit verb 1. to say that something
should not be done ć prohibit the gathering
of bulbs from the wild for sale ć Smoking is
prohibited in this area. 2. to prevent some-
thing from happening ć The persistence of
DDT prohibits its general use for malaria
control.
project project noun a plan or scheme of work ć
a land reclamation project í verb 1. to
stick out ć The groynes project into the sea.
2. to estimate something in the future from
current information ć Research costs are
projected to rise sharply.
projectile projectile adjective 1. moving forwards
with force 2. able to push suddenly for-
ward, as are the jaws of some fish or the
mouthparts of a dragonfly larva
projection projection noun 1. a part that sticks out
2. an estimate or assessment of something
that will happen in the future 3. a technique
for making a map
prokaryote prokaryote noun a simple organism such
as a bacterium whose DNA is not contained
within a nucleus. Compare eukaryote
prokaryotic prokaryotic adjective referring to
prokaryotes. Compare eukaryotic
prolonged prolonged adjective lasting for a long
time ć prolonged drought
promontory promontory noun an area of high land
which projects into the sea
promote promote verb to encourage or enable
something to take place ć Growth-promot-
ing hormones are used to increase the
weight of beef cattle.
promoter promoter noun a substance that increases
the activity of a catalyst
promotion promotion noun the activity of encour-
aging or enabling something to take place
ć the promotion of recycling schemes
propagate propagate verb 1. to reproduce 2. to pro-
duce new plants by a technique such as tak-
ing cuttings, grafting, budding or layering
ć fuschias propagated from cuttings
propagation propagation noun the production of new
plants ć propagation by runners ı vegeta-
tive propagation
propagator propagator noun a closed but transpar-
ent container in which seed can be sown or
cuttings grown in a moist, warm atmos-
phere
propellant propellant noun 1. a gas used in an aero-
sol can to make the spray come out 2. a sub-
stance used to make something move for-
wards, e.g. rocket fuel
propene propene noun same as propylene
property property noun 1. something which be-
longs to someone ć The institute is the
property of a large corporation. ć Inven-
tions are regarded as intellectual property.
2. land and buildings
prophylactic prophylactic adjective referring to an
activity that helps to prevent the develop-
ment of disease or infection
prophylaxis prophylaxis noun the practice of taking
of measures to prevent disease or infection
proportionality principle proportionality principle
noun the
concept that control measures or response
to a situation should generally be propor-
tional to the risk identified
propylene propylene noun a substance obtained
from petroleum, used in the manufacture of
plastics and chemicals. Formula: C3H6. Also called propene
protect protect verb to stop something being
damaged or harmed
protected protected adjective referring to a species
that has been legally identified as in danger
of extinction, or an area of sea or land that
has special value for the maintenance of bi-
ological diversity and natural resources
protection protection noun the act or an instance of
keeping something from harm, injury or
damage
protective protective adjective intended or able to
keep something else from harm, injury or
damage
protein protein noun a nitrogen compound
formed by the condensation of amino acids
that is present in and is an essential part of
living cells
protest protest noun an act of showing disagree-
ment ć There was a protest against cutting
173
putrefy
down the trees. í verb ˽ to protest against
something to show you disagree with something ć Crowds protested against the killing of seals. proto- proto- prefix first protocol protocol noun an addition to an international legal measure ć the Montreal protocol on CFCs protozoan protozoan adjective referring to organisms in the Protozoa í noun a single-celled organism that is able to move and feeds on organic nitrogen and carbon compounds, e.g. an amoeba (NOTE: Protozoans are now regarded as part of the kingdom Protoctis-
ta.)
province province noun a biogeographical area within a region that is defined by the plants and animals that inhabit it proximal proximal adjective nearer to the centre or point of attachment. Compare distal pseudo- pseudo- prefix similar to something, but not the same pseudokarst pseudokarst noun a terrain like karst, but not in limestone country and not due to weathering Pt Pt symbol platinum pteridophyte pteridophyte noun a plant that does not produce flowers or seeds and reproduces by means of spores, e.g. ferns or some mosses. Division: Pteridophyta. Pu Pu symbol plutonium public public adjective concerning or available to all people in general public public amenities amenities plural noun facilities that make the surroundings more pleasant and are open to the general public public public amenity point amenity point noun a place where people can take their household waste for recycling or safe disposal public public domain domain noun the condition of not being protected by copyright and available to all people in general ć The information is now in the public domain. public public enquiry enquiry noun 1. a set of official meetings that members of the public may attend to investigate why something happened or whether something should happen in future ć They called for a public enquiry on the road plans. 2. a request for information to an organisation made by a member of the public Public Public Health Inspector Health Inspector noun an official of a local authority who examines the environment and tests for air pollution, bad sanitation or noise pollution public public transport transport noun a system of buses, trains, aircraft, trams or boats which everyone may use for travel
public public utility utility noun an essential service
which is available to all people in general,
e.g. electricity, gas, water, telephone, rail-
way
puddingstone puddingstone noun a type of stone
which is formed from other stones fused to-
gether
pulp pulp noun 1. the soft inside of a fruit or
vegetable 2. a thick soft substance made by
crushing ć wood pulp
pulse pulse noun 1. a short burst of current or
voltage 2. a pressure wave that can be felt
in an artery each time the heart beats to
pump blood 3. any regular recurring varia-
tion in quantity 4. a leguminous plant that
produces seeds eaten as food, e.g. a bean or
pea ć Pulses provide a large amount of
protein.
pulverise pulverise
,
pulverize
verb
to
reduce
something to small particles
pulverised pulverised fuel ash fuel ash noun fine ash from
furnaces used to make construction blocks.
Abbr PFA
pumice pumice
,
pumice
stone
noun
a
light
glass-like substance formed from foam at
the edge of a lava flow
pump pump noun a machine which forces liquid
or air into or out of something ć a water
pump ć a bicycle pump í verb to force liq-
uid or air into or out of something
pupa pupa noun a stage in the development of
some insects such as butterflies when the
larva becomes encased in a hard shell
(NOTE: The plural is pupae.)
pupal pupal adjective referring to a pupa
pupate pupate verb (of an insect) to move from
the larval to the pupal stage
pure pure adjective uncontaminated or un-
mixed ć Magnesium does not possess suf-
ficient strength in its pure state for structur-
al uses.
purebred purebred adjective referring to an animal
which is the offspring of parents which are
themselves the offspring of parents of the
same breed
pure pure strain strain noun a group of plants bred
by self-fertilisation whose characteristics
remain always the same
purification purification noun the action of making
something pure or of removing impurities
ć Activated sludge speeds up the process of
purification.
purify purify verb to make something pure or re-
move impurities from something
purity purity noun the state of being pure
putrefaction putrefaction noun the decomposition of
dead organic substances by bacteria
putrefy putrefy verb to decompose or rot
putrescibility
174
putrescibility putrescibility noun the ability of waste matter to decompose or rot putrescible putrescible adjective referring to waste matter that can decompose or rot PVC PVC noun a type of plastic that is not biodegradable, used for floor coverings, clothes, shoes, pipes, etc. Full form polyvi-
nylchloride
PWR PWR abbr pressurised water reactor pylon pylon noun a tall metal construction for carrying high-tension electric cables from a power station pyr- pyr- prefix same as pyro- (NOTE: used be-
fore vowels)
pyramid pyramid of biomass of biomass noun a graphical representation of the different amounts of biomass at each trophic level, with the highest biomass at producer level and the lowest at secondary consumer level. Also called pyramid (NOTE: The biomass at
each level is about 10% of that of the level beneath.)
pyramid pyramid of energy of energy noun a graphical
representation of the amounts of energy consumed at each trophic level
pyramid pyramid of numbers of numbers noun a graphical
representation of the structure of an ecosys-
tem in terms of what eats what (NOTE: The
base is composed of producer organisms,
usually plants, then herbivores, then carni-
vores.)
pyrethrum pyrethrum noun an organic pesticide,
developed from a form of chrysanthemum,
which is not very toxic and is not persistent
pyrite pyrite
,
pyrites
noun
a
gold-coloured
form
of iron sulfide. Formula: Fe2S. pyro- pyro- prefix burning
pyroclastic pyroclastic flow flow noun the flow of lava
from a volcano
pyrolysis pyrolysis noun the decomposition or
conversion of one substance into another by heat
Q
quadrant quadrant noun a device for measuring the height of stars, formerly used in calculating direction at sea quadrantal quadrantal adjective referring to a quarter of a circle quadrat quadrat noun an area of land measuring one square metre, chosen as a sample for research on plant populations ć The vegetation of the area was sampled using quadrats.
quake quake noun same as earthquake
(informal )
qualitative qualitative adjective referring to quality quality quality noun how good or bad something is ˽ quality of life the set of characteristics that determine the type of life that people live or hope to live ć The aim of the ban on emitting polluting gases is to improve the quality of life in the surrounding regions. ć Trees in urban areas improve the quality of life for people living there. í adjective of a high standard ć a quality product ˽ quality farm produce farm produce of the best quality quality quality assurance assurance noun the system of procedures used in checking that the quality of a product is good
quango quango noun a group set up by a government to investigate or deal with a specific problem. Full form quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisation. ı non-
departmental public body
quantifiable quantifiable adjective able to be shown in figures ć The effect of the change in the waste disposal systems is not easily quantifiable. quantify quantify verb to state something as a quantity or in figures ć to quantify the effect of the new legislation on pollution levels ć The environmental benefits are difficult to quantify.
quantitative quantitative adjective referring to quantity
quantity quantity noun an amount or number of items ć He bought a large quantity of spare parts. ˽ to carry out a quantity survey to estimate the amount of materials and the cost of the labour required for a construction project
quarantine quarantine noun the period when an animal, person, plant or ship just arrived in a country is kept separate in case it carries a serious disease, to allow the disease time to develop and so be detected
175
radioactive waste
quarry quarry noun a place where rock is removed from the ground for commercial purposes í verb to remove rock from the ground for commercial purposes quartile quartile noun one of three figures below which 25%, 50% and 75% of a total falls
quartz quartz noun a mineral form of silica, often found as crystals in igneous rocks
(NOTE: Pure quartz is known as rock crystal.)
quasi- quasi- prefix almost ć a quasi-official body
quaternary quaternary adjective consisting of four parts
Quaternary Quaternary period period noun the geological period which is still currently in existence
quicklime quicklime noun a calcium compound made from burnt limestone (NOTE: It is used
in the composition of cement and in many industrial processes.)
quicksilver quicksilver noun same as mercury quiescent quiescent adjective 1. referring to a volcano that is not active 2. referring to a seed that is not germinating because the conditions for germination are unsatisfactory
quota quota noun a fixed amount of something which is allowed ć A quota has been imposed on the fishing of herring.
R
Ra Ra symbol radium
race race noun a group of individuals within a species that are distinct, especially physiologically or ecologically, from other members of the species ˽ the human race all people
raceme raceme noun an inflorescence in which flowers are borne on individual stalks on a main flower stem with the youngest flowers at the top of the main stalk
rachis rachis noun the main stem that supports an inflorescence or a compound leaf
rad rad noun a former unit of measurement of absorbed radiation dose. ı gray, becquerel
(NOTE: The gray is now used for 100 rad.)
radar radar noun a method of detecting distant objects and establishing their position, velocity or other characteristics by analysis of radio waves reflected from their surfaces. Full form radio detection and ranging
radiant radiant adjective sent out in the form of rays
radiate radiate verb 1. to spread out in all directions from a central point 2. to send out rays ć Heat radiates from the body. ć Beta rays are radiated from a radioactive isotope.
radiation radiation noun 1. the process or state of spreading out in all directions from a central point 2. the waves of energy which are given off when heat is transferred 3. the waves of energy which are given off by a radioactive substance
radiation radiation ionisation ionisation noun same as ion-
ising radiation
radiation radiation pollution pollution noun the contamination of the environment by radiation from a radioactive agent
radiation radiation sickness sickness noun an illness caused by exposure to a radioactive agent
radiation radiation zone zone noun an area that is contaminated by radiation and which people are not allowed to enter
radiative radiative forcing forcing noun a change in balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation
radicle radicle noun the tiny structure in a plant embryo from which the root will develop
radio- radio- prefix 1. radiation 2. radioactive substances
radioactive radioactive adjective referring to a substance whose nucleus disintegrates and gives off energy in the form of radiation that can pass through other substances
COMMENT: The most common naturally radioactive substances are radium and uranium. Other substances can be made radioactive for industrial or medical purposes by making their nuclei unstable, so forming radioactive isotopes. Radioactive wastes are classified as low-level, i.e. not considered to be very dangerous, intermediate and high-level, i.e. emitting dangerous levels of radiation.
radioactive radioactive isotope isotope noun a natural or artificial isotope which gives off radiation
radioactive radioactive waste waste noun used radioactive materials produced by nuclear power stations, industrial plants, hospitals and other installations
radioactive waste conditioning 176
radioactive waste conditioning radioactive waste conditioning
noun the processing of radioactive waste to
use it again or to make it safe for disposal
radioactive waste isolation radioactive waste isolation
noun
keeping radioactive waste separate so that it
does not contaminate other things
radioactivity radioactivity noun the energy in the
form of radiation emitted by a radioactive
substance
radiobiologist radiobiologist noun a scientist who spe-
cialises in radiobiology
radiobiology radiobiology noun the scientific study of
radiation and its effects on living things
radiocarbon radiocarbon noun a radioactive isotope
of carbon with an atomic number of 14
radiodermatitis radiodermatitis noun an inflammation
of the skin caused by exposure to a radioac-
tive agent
radio detection and ranging radio detection and ranging
noun
full form of radar
radiogenic radiogenic heat heat noun the heat generat-
ed by the decay of a radioactive substance
radium radium noun a naturally radioactive me-
tallic element (NOTE: The chemical symbol
is Ra; atomic number is 88 and the atomic
weight is 226.)
radon radon noun an inert naturally radioactive
gas formed by the radioactive decay of ra-
dium that occurs naturally in soil, in con-
struction materials and ground water. It can
seep into houses and cause radiation sick-
ness. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Rn;
the atomic number is 86 and the atomic
weight is 222.)
rain rain noun 1. water that falls from clouds as
small drops (NOTE: Rain is normally slightly
acid, about pH 5.6, but becomes more acid
when pollutants from burning fossil fuels
are released into the atmosphere.) 2. a pe-
riod of wet weather í plural noun rains in
some countries, repeated heavy falls of rain
during a season of the year
rainbow rainbow noun a natural phenomenon that
occurs when light strikes water droplets,
especially when sunlight hits rain or spray
from a waterfall, creating a semicircle of
rings of each of the colours of the spectrum
raincloud raincloud noun a cloud that carries mois-
ture in droplet form which can fall as rain
raindrop raindrop noun a drop of water that falls
from a cloud
rainfall rainfall noun the amount of water that
falls as rain on an area over a period of time
ć an area of high /low rainfall
rainforest rainforest noun a thick tropical forest
which grows in regions where the rainfall is
very high
rainmaking rainmaking noun the attempt to create
rain by releasing crystals of salt, carbon di-
oxide and other substances into clouds
rainout rainout noun a process whereby particles
in the atmosphere act as centres round
which water can form drops which then fall
as rain. Compare washout
rainstorm rainstorm noun a period of heavy rain
accompanied by wind
rainwash rainwash noun the erosion of soil by rain
rainwater rainwater noun the water which falls as
rain from clouds
rainy rainy season season noun the period in some
countries when a lot of rain falls. Also
called wet season. Compare dry season
raise raise verb 1. to make something higher 2.
to make plants germinate and nurture them
as seedlings ć The plants are raised from
seed. 3. to breed and keep livestock
ramet ramet noun a single cloned organism such
as one produced by tissue culture
ram ram pump pump noun a water pumping device
that is powered by falling water
Ramsar Ramsar site site noun a site designated by
the Ramsar convention on the conservation
of wetland habitats and species
ranching ranching noun the raising of cattle on
large grassland farms
range range noun 1. a series of different but
similar things ć a range of books on biolo-
gy 2. the difference between the lowest and
highest values in a series of data ć The tem-
perature range is over 50°C. 3. an area
within two or more points ć The geograph-
ical range of the plant is from the Arctic
Circle to southern Europe. 4. a large area of
grass-covered farmland used for raising
cattle or sheep 5. a group of mountains í
verb 1. to vary between limits ć The tem-
perature ranges from 13°C to 18°C in that
month. 2. to include many things ć The lec-
ture ranged over the whole area of medical
and agricultural genetic modification. 3. to
move over a wide area
ranger ranger noun a person in charge of the
management and protection of a forest,
park or reserve
rape rape
,
rapeseed
noun
same
as
oilseed
rape
rapid rapid adjective acting, moving or chang-
ing quickly
raptor raptor noun a bird of prey
raptorial raptorial adjective referring to raptors
rare rare adjective 1. not common 2. (of a spe-
cies) existing only in small local popula-
tions 3. (of air) not containing much oxy-
gen, especially at high altitudes
rare rare gas gas noun same as noble gas
177
recessiveness
rarity rarity noun the state of being rare
rate rate noun 1. an amount or proportion of
something compared to something else 2.
the number of times something happens
rate of rate of natural increase natural increase noun the dif-
ference between the crude birth rate and the
death rate
rate of population growth rate of population growth
noun the
increase in population in a specific area di-
vided by the initial population
rating rating noun a classification according to a
scale
ratio ratio noun a relationship between two
quantities expressed as the quotient of one
divided by the other ć The air/fuel ratio is
15:1. ć Chart scale is the ratio of the chart
distance to Earth distance. (NOTE: The ratio
of 7 to 4 is written 7:4 or 7/4.)
ration ration noun an amount of food given to an
animal or person
raw raw adjective 1. (of food) uncooked 2. (of a
substance) unprocessed or unrefined 3. (of
sewage, water or waste) untreated 4. (of
data) not yet subjected to analysis
raw raw material material noun a substance which is
used to manufacture something, e.g. ore for
making metals or wood for making furni-
ture
ray ray noun 1. a line of light, radiation or heat
2. an arm of a starfish 3. a distinct radial
band of tissue in the stem of a plant 4. same
as ray floret
ray ray floret floret noun a long thin part among
those around a flower head of a plant be-
longing to the Compositae such as a daisy
or sunflower. Compare disc floret
RBE RBE abbr relative biological effectiveness
RDA RDA noun Recommended Daily Amount
RDF RDF abbr refuse-derived fuel
RDZ RDZ abbr resource depletion zone
REACH REACH abbr Registration, Evaluation,
Authorisation and Restrictions of Chemi-
cals
react react verb 1. to act in response to an action
2. to change chemical composition on con-
tact with a substance ć Ozone is produced
as a result of oxides reacting with sunlight.
˽ to react with something to change be-
cause of the presence of another substance
ć ozone is produced as a result of oxides
reacting with sunlight
reaction reaction noun 1. an action that takes
place because of something that happened
earlier 2. an effect produced by a stimulus
3. a chemical change that occurs when two
substances come into contact and cause
each other to change
reactive reactive adjective referring to a chemical that reacts easily with other substances reactivity reactivity noun the degree to which a substance reacts reading reading noun a piece of information indicated by an instrument or gauge reafforest reafforest verb to plant trees again in an area which was formerly covered by forest reafforestation reafforestation noun the planting of trees in an area which was formerly covered by forest reagent reagent noun a chemical substance which reacts with another substance, especially one used in an experiment, test or process realised realised niche niche noun the portion of a fundamental niche that is actually occupied by a species, resulting from the sharing of resources in an ecosystem real real time time noun ˽ in real time happening at the same time as something else, without a time delay ć The scan allowed us to watch the baby moving in real time. real-time real-time adjective referring to something that happens at the same time as something else, such as the processing of data as soon as they are received rear rear verb to look after young animals until they are old enough to look after themselves receiving receiving waters waters plural noun rivers, lakes, oceans, streams or other bodies of water into which waste water or treated effluent is discharged receptacle receptacle noun 1. the top part of a flower stalk that supports the flower (NOTE: In
some plants such as strawberry it develops
into the fruit.) 2. the plant part that carries the reproductive organs in lower plants such as mosses and liverworts receptor receptor noun 1. a nerve ending which senses a change such as cold or heat in the surrounding environment or in the body and reacts to it by sending an impulse to the central nervous system 2. a site on a cell surface to which a specific molecule such as an antigen binds 3. someone or something adversely affected by a pollutant ć The ground water is the receptor in this case of land contamination. recessive recessive adjective (of a gene or genetically controlled characteristic) suppressed by the presence of a corresponding dominant gene. Compare dominant recessiveness recessiveness noun the characteristic of a gene that leads to its not being expressed in the individual carrying it when a corresponding dominant gene is present. Compare dominance
recharge
178
recharge recharge verb 1. to restore the electric charge of a battery 2. to replace or renew something
rechargeable rechargeable battery battery noun a type of battery that uses a reversible chemical reaction to produce electricity, allowing it to be recharged and used again ć A rechargeable battery is used for backup when the system is switched off.
recharge recharge area area noun an area of land where there is a net transfer of water each year from the surface to ground water
recharge recharge well well noun a well through which surface water is introduced to an underground aquifer
reclaim reclaim verb 1. to make available for agricultural or commercial purposes marshy land, a waste site, land which has previously been built on or used for industry, or land which has never been cultivated ć to reclaim land from the sea 2. to recover useful materials from waste
reclamation reclamation noun 1. the act of reclaiming land ć land reclamation schemes in urban centres 2. land which has been reclaimed 3. the recovery of useful materials from waste
recognition recognition noun 1. the ability to recognise someone or something 2. respect or official acceptance ˽ in recognition of or for as a mark of respect for ć He was awarded the Nobel prize in recognition of his work on the human genome.
recombination recombination noun any process that results in offspring that have combinations of genes different from those of either parent, e.g. the crossing-over and independent assortment of chromosomes during gamete formation
recommend recommend verb to suggest that something should be done ć The report recommended excluding deer from the woodland in order to protect the young growth of plants.
recommendation recommendation noun a strong suggestion that something should be done ć The council accepted the committee’s recommendations about disposal of waste.
reconstitute reconstitute verb to put something back into its original state ć The mining company should reconstitute the site after the open-cast mining operation has closed down.
record record noun a written account of facts and information for future reference í verb to write down information or data ć Record the results in this column. ć Measure the
angles and distances and record them in a log. recover recover verb 1. to return to a more usual condition ć The fish populations may never recover from overfishing. 2. to obtain metals or other useful materials from waste by separating and purifying it
recovery recovery noun 1. a return to a more usual condition ć The area has been overfished to such an extent that the recovery of the fish population is impossible. 2. the process of obtaining metals or other useful materials from waste recrystallisation recrystallisation noun the purification of a substance by repeatedly forming crystals from a solution
rectification rectification noun the purification of a liquid by distillation
rectify rectify verb to purify a liquid by a repeated process
recyclable recyclable adjective referring to waste that can be processed so that it can be used again recycle recycle verb to process waste so that it can be used again ć The glass industry recycles tonnes of waste glass each year.
recycled recycled adjective made from waste ć recycled aluminium
recycled recycled paper paper noun paper made from waste paper
recycling recycling noun the activity of processing waste so that it can be used again
‘Waste production in the UK continues to rise at 3% per year – faster than GDP growth. Defra’s target is to enable 25% of household waste to be recycled or composted by 2005/6. (Delivering the evidence. Defra’s Science and Innovation Strategy 2003–06).’
red red adjective referring to a colour like the colour of blood
Red Red Data Book Data Book noun a catalogue formerly published by the IUCN, listing species which are rare or in danger of becoming extinct. The information is now available in a searchable database. ı Red list
redevelop redevelop verb to demolish the buildings on an area of land and build new ones ć The company has put forward a plan to redevelop the area around the railway station. redevelopment redevelopment noun the act of redeveloping an area of land ć The council’s planning committee has approved the redevelopment plan for the town centre. redistribution redistribution of land of land noun the practice of taking land from large landowners and splitting it into smaller plots for many people to own
179
refuse-derived fuel
red red lead lead noun a poisonous red oxide of lead, used as a colouring in paints. Formula: Pb3O4. Red Red list list noun 1. a searchable database maintained by IUCN that records the conservation status of different organisms in throughout the world. Full form IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. ı IUCN 2. a list recording the conservation status of a particular type of organism in a specific geographical area ć the Red list of the epiphytic lichens of Switzerland
redox redox noun same as oxidation–reduc-
tion
redox redox potential potential noun 1. a measure of the ability of the natural environment to bring about an oxidation or a reduction process 2. the cell potential required relative to a standard hydrogen electrode to cause oxidation at an anode and reduction at a cathode ̈ abbr rH
reduce reduce verb 1. to make something less, smaller or lower, or to become less, smaller or lower. Opposite increase 2. to add electrons or hydrogen to a substance
reducer reducer noun an organism that breaks down dead organic matter, e.g. an earthworm, fungus or bacterium
reducing reducing atmosphere atmosphere noun an atmosphere that does not contain free oxygen gas and in which compounds combine chemically with hydrogen
reduction reduction noun 1. the process of making something less, smaller or lower, or of becoming less, smaller or lower ć The key to controlling acid rain must be the reduction of emissions from fossil-fuelled power stations. Opposite increase 2. the addition of electrons or hydrogen to a substance
redundancy redundancy noun the situation of not being needed because other similar things exist
redundant redundant adjective no longer useful ć recycling redundant containers
redwood redwood noun a tall North American conifer. Latin name: Sequoia sempervirens.
reed reed noun a grass that grows in water near the shores of lakes (NOTE: The common
reed Phragmites communis is used for thatching roofs. The Spanish reed Arundo donax has been used in musical instruments for more than 5000 years.)
reedbed reedbed noun a mass of reeds growing together
reedbed reedbed filter filter noun a reedbed used as part of a system of cleaning sewage or dirty water
reef reef noun a series of low rocks or coral
near the surface of the sea
re-emerging re-emerging adjective starting to reap-
pear
refine refine verb 1. to process something to re-
move impurities ć a by-product of refining
oil 2. to make changes in order to improve
something ć We’ve refined the procedures.
refined refined adjective having had impurities
removed ć refined oil
refinement refinement noun the process of remov-
ing impurities in something
refinery refinery noun a processing facility where
impurities are removed from raw materials
such as ore, oil or sugar
reflection reflection noun the process of light,
sound or heat being transmitted back to-
wards its source
reflex reflex noun a rapid automatic reaction to a
stimulus
reflux reflux noun a backward flow of a liquid
from a boiler in the opposite direction to
normal flow, collecting vapour and con-
densing it so that it can return to the boiler
again
reforest reforest verb same as reafforest
reforestation reforestation noun same as reafforesta-
tion
refract refract verb to cause a wave such as light
or sound to change direction or turn as it
passes from one medium into another of
different density ć On reaching the iono-
sphere, a direct wave is refracted and re-
turns to the Earth’s surface.
refrigerant refrigerant noun a substance used to pro-
vide cooling or freezing either as the work-
ing substance of a refrigerator or by direct
absorption of heat
refrigerate refrigerate verb to keep something cold
to prevent deterioration
refrigeration refrigeration noun the process of keep-
ing something cold to prevent deterioration
refrigerator refrigerator noun a machine which
keeps things cold
refuge refuge noun a safe place where a species
can escape environmental change and con-
tinue to exist as before
refugium refugium noun same as refuge (NOTE:
The plural is refugia.)
refuse refuse noun rubbish or other forms of
waste
refuse collection and disposal refuse collection and disposal
noun
the action of gathering waste together and
getting rid of it
refuse-derived refuse-derived fuel fuel noun a fuel that is
made or processed from refuse. Abbr RDF
refuse disposal
180
refuse refuse disposal disposal noun same as waste
disposal
refuse refuse dump dump noun a place where waste is thrown away
regenerate regenerate verb to grow again, or grow something again ć A forest takes about ten years to regenerate after a fire. ć Salamanders can regenerate limbs.
regeneration regeneration noun the process of vegetation growing back on land which has been cleared or burnt ć Grazing by herbivores prevents forest regeneration.
regenerative regenerative adjective 1. restoring or renewing ć regenerative capacity 2. allowing new growth to replace damaged tissue
regime regime noun a general pattern or system ć a strict dietary regime ć The two rivers have very different flow regimes: one has rapid flow down from high mountains, while the other is slower and mainly crosses fertile plains.
region region noun 1. a large area of land with distinct geographic, political, or biological characteristics ć the polar regions ć The troposphere is deepest over equatorial regions and shallowest near the Poles. 2. an area of a surface ć the outer region of the stained area ˽ in the region of approximately ć The burning temperature of the fuel is in the region of 2000° C.
register register verb 1. to show or display information or data ć Several lakes have registered a steady increase in acidity levels until their natural fish populations have started to decline. ć The earthquake registered 6.2 on the Richter scale. 2. to make something known formally or officially ć We registered our concern about the procedure. í noun an official record, or a list of items ć a register of authorized users
regolith regolith noun a layer of weathered rock fragments which covers most of the Earth’s land area
regress regress verb to return to a more primitive earlier state
regression regression noun the process of returning to a more primitive earlier state, e.g. when cultivated land returns to a wild state
regressive regressive adjective (of a water level) getting lower
regrowth regrowth noun the growth that occurs after a cut or harvest, or after accidental damage or fire
regulate regulate verb 1. to control a process or activity 2. to change or maintain something by law ć Development is regulated by local authorities.
regulation regulation noun 1. the control of a process or activity 2. a rule ć The pamphlet lists the regulations concerning visits to nature reserves. regulator regulator noun 1. something or someone controlling a process or activity 2. a device used to limit the current and voltage in a circuit ć Regulators allow the correct charging of batteries from solar panels and wind generators. regulatory regulatory adjective controlling a process or activity according to specific rules ć a regulatory body rehabilitation rehabilitation noun reclaiming and redeveloping land and buildings which have been abandoned reheater reheater noun a section of a power station where steam which has been used to turn the first turbine is heated again to create enough pressure to turn the second turbine reintroduce reintroduce verb to help a species to live successfully again in an area it had formerly inhabited reintroduction reintroduction noun the process of helping a species to live successfully again in an area it had formerly inhabited relate relate verb to make a connection or link between two things ć Orientating the chart relates the direction of land features to
their representation on the chart and aids recognition. -related -related suffix connected to ć a heat-related change relationship relationship noun the way in which someone or something is related to another relative relative noun something such as a species that has developed from the same origin as another similar thing ć onions and their wild relatives í adjective describing how one thing is compared with another relative relative abundance abundance noun the number of individual specimens of an animal or plant seen over a period in a specific place relative biological effectiveness relative biological effectiveness noun a measure of the different degrees of effectiveness of different types of radiation in producing effects in biological systems, used in radiation protection contexts. Abbr RBE relative relative humidity humidity noun a ratio between the amount of water vapour in air and the amount that would be present if the air was saturated, shown as a percentage release release verb 1. to let something go that has been contained ć Acid rain leaches out nutrients from the soil and releases harmful substances such as lead into the soil. ć Us-
181
reprocessing
ing an aerosol spray releases CFCs into the atmosphere. 2. to allow a bird or other animal that has been reared or kept in captivity to live freely in the environment ć They released 93 birds and there are now 177 breeding pairs. 3. to make something available, especially for the first time í noun 1. the act of letting something out from where it is contained ć The report points out the danger of radiation releases from nuclear power stations. 2. the act of making something available for the first time
releaser releaser noun a stimulus that provokes a reaction in an animal, e.g. the sight of a hawk or the sound of a gun
relevé relevé noun a small plot into which a larger area is divided, used as a sample for analysing vegetation
reliable reliable adjective referring to someone or something that can be trusted ć It is not a very reliable method of measuring the depth.
relict relict noun a species that still exists, even though the environment in which it originally developed does not
relief relief noun a difference in height between points on the Earth’s surface
rely rely on on verb to trust someone or something ć He relies on his skill and experience to identify poisonous fungi. (NOTE: re-
lies – relying – relied)
rem rem abbr roentgen equivalent man
remedial remedial investigation investigation noun investigation of a polluted site, including taking samples of soil or water, to determine what sort of action needs to be taken to improve it. Abbr RI
remediation remediation noun a course of action intended to reverse environmental damage. ı
bioremediation
remote remote sensing sensing noun the collection of information via satellite observation and aerial photography about physical aspects of the Earth such as the location of mineral deposits, or the movement of water or pests
renew renew verb to replace something
renewable renewable adjective referring to something that can be replaced or can renew itself by regrowing, reforming or breeding ć Herring stocks are a renewable resource if the numbers being caught are controlled. ˽ renewable sources of energy energy from the sun, wind, waves, tides or from geothermal deposits or from burning waste, none of which uses up fossil fuel reserves
renewable renewable resource resource noun a natural resource that replaces itself unless overused,
e.g. animal or plant life, fresh water or wind energy
renewables renewables obligation obligation noun the requirement for power generators to reduce their use of fossil fuels and replace them over time with sources of energy that can be renewed
repel repel verb to push something away by force, or to resist something (NOTE: repel-
ling – repelled)
repellent repellent adjective referring to a substance that causes something to which it is applied to resist something ć a repellent insecticide í noun a substance that causes something to which it is applied to resist something ć The coating of wax on the leaves acts as a repellent to pollutants.
-repellent -repellent suffix resisting something ć a water-repellent coating
replacement replacement fertility fertility noun the fertility rate needed to ensure that a population remains constant as each set of parents is replaced by its offspring
replant replant verb to grow plants in an area again ć After the trees were felled the land was cleared and replanted with mixed conifers and broadleaved species.
replicate replicate verb 1. to do something again in the same way ć The routine will replicate your results with very little effort. 2. (of a cell or microorganism) to reproduce
replication replication noun 1. the process in the division of a cell during which DNA makes copies of itself 2. the process of reproduction of a cell or microorganism ć virus replication 3. the repetition of an experiment several times in order to achieve a reliably consistent result
report report noun a document giving an account of something, stating what action has been taken, what the current state is or what the results of a test or experiment are ć a report on global warming í verb to give an account of something
repository repository noun US a place where something can be stored ć a nuclear waste repository
repower repower verb to rebuild an old power station, converting it to a more modern combustion system
reprocess reprocess verb to process something into another form
reprocessing reprocessing noun the processing of something such as spent nuclear fuel and subjecting it to chemical processes which produce further useful materials such as plutonium
reproduce
182
reproduce reproduce verb 1. to produce offspring 2. (of bacteria) to produce new cells 3. to do a test again in exactly the same way
reproduction reproduction noun the production of offspring
reproductive reproductive adjective referring to the production of offspring ć Pollination is a reproductive process.
reproductive reproductive cloning cloning noun the use of cloning techniques to produce new individuals
reproductive reproductive value value noun the number of offspring an individual can be expected to produce during a lifetime
reptile reptile noun a cold-blooded animal that lays eggs and has a scaly skin, e.g. a crocodile, tortoise or snake. Class: Reptilia.
requirement requirement noun something that is needed ć a change in water requirements ć The regulations contain a requirement for regular monitoring.
research research noun a scientific study that investigates something new ć recent research into the relationship between skin cancer and exposure to sunlight ć environmental research ć a research programme
reservation reservation noun an area of land set aside for a special purpose
reserve reserve noun 1. an amount stored or kept back for future use 2. an area of land maintained for the benefit of plant or animal life where no commercial exploitation is allowed. ı game reserve, nature reserve,
wildlife reserve
reservoir reservoir noun 1. an artificial or natural area of water, used for storing water for domestic or industrial use ć The town’s water supply comes from reservoirs in the mountains. ć After two months of drought the reservoirs were beginning to run dry. 2. a natural hole in rock that contains water, oil or gas
reservoir reservoir rock rock noun rock that is porous and permeable, from which oil or natural gas may be extracted
residence residence time time noun the amount of time during which something remains in the same place or in the same state until it is lost or transformed into something else
resident resident adjective referring to an organism or a person living in a place, especially for a long time ć The introduced species wiped out the resident population of flightless birds. í noun a bird, insect or other animal that does not migrate ć The birds are year-round residents in this particular area.
residential environment residential environment
noun an area
characterised principally by the presence of
houses and apartment blocks
residual residual adjective referring to the amount
of something that is left behind
residual residual risk risk noun a risk which still re-
mains after pollution-prevention measures
have been applied
residue residue noun the material left after a
process has taken place or after a material
has been used
resilience resilience noun 1. the ability of an organ-
ism to resist or recover from adverse condi-
tions 2. the ability of an ecosystem to return
to its usual state after being disturbed
resin resin noun 1. a sticky oil secreted by some
conifers or other trees, especially when
they are cut 2. a solid or liquid organic
compound used in the making of plastic
resinous resinous adjective referring to resin
resistance resistance noun the ability of an organ-
ism not to be affected by something such as
a disease, stress factor, process or treatment
ć Increasing insect resistance to chemical
pesticides is a major problem. ć Crop
plants have been bred for resistance to dis-
ease.
resistant resistant adjective referring to something
which is unaffected by a disease, stress fac-
tor, process or treatment ć Some alloys are
less resistant to corrosion than others. ć
The plants were not resistant to mildew.
-resistant -resistant suffix not adversely affected by
something ć heat-resistant ć a DDT-re-
sistant strain of insects ć disease-resistant
genetic material ć a new strain of virus-re-
sistant rice
resorption resorption noun 1. the absorption of a
substance already produced back into the
organism that produced it 2. the melting of
solid rock which falls into magma
resource resource noun 1. a useful source of
something ć reference resources such as
encyclopaedias 2. anything in the environ-
ment which can be used ć Fossil fuel re-
sources are being depleted. ć Woodland is
a valuable resource. ı natural resource
resource depletion zone resource depletion zone
noun an
area where a resource is depleted, e.g.
where water is removed from the soil
around a plant. Abbr RDZ
resource resource economics economics noun the study
of the economics of an ecosystem, showing
the value of the services provided by that
system in financial terms
resource resource partitioning partitioning noun the way in
which resources in an ecosystem are divid-
183
rich
ed up by the species who need them, each using them in a different way
respiratory respiratory heat heat noun the energy lost to a community in plant respiration
respond respond verb to react to something
response response noun a reaction to a stimulus
responsibility responsibility noun the state of being answerable for something, or in charge of something ć the responsibility of using limited resources wisely ć take responsibility for stewardship of the countryside
responsible responsible adjective answerable for something or in charge of something ć responsible for safety checks
responsible responsible care care noun an initiative of the chemical industry which requires member firms to follow codes of conduct on such matters as toxic materials, waste reduction, chemical-accident minimisation, worker safety and community consultation
restock restock verb to provide another supply of something that has been used up, or provide somewhere with a new supply ć We’ll restock next year. ć So many animals died that they had to restock the farm in the spring.
restoration restoration noun the act or process of giving something back, or putting something back to a previous state or position
restore restore verb to give something back, or put something back to a previous state or position
result result noun a consequence or outcome ć The abundance and diversity of flowers in the meadow was the result of careful management.
returnable returnable adjective referring to something such as a bottle which can be taken back to the place where it was bought and then be reused or recycled
reuse reuse noun the use of a product or a material for an additional time or a different purpose, usually as an alternative to throwing it away í verb to use a product or a material for an additional time or a different purpose, usually as an alternative to throwing it away
reverse reverse adjective referring to an object or a process going backwards or in the opposite direction í verb to change a decision and do the opposite of what was done before ć The decision of the planning committee was reversed and the planning application went ahead.
reversed reversed fault fault noun same as thrust
fault
reverse reverse osmosis osmosis noun a process in which water is forced through a membrane which removes impurities
rH rH abbr redox potential
rhino rhino noun same as rhinoceros (NOTE:
The plural is rhinos.)
rhinoceros rhinoceros noun a very large herbivorous animal with thick skin and either one horn or two horns, one behind the other, on a projecting part of its head above the nose and mouth (NOTE: The plural is rhinoceros-
es or rhinoceros.)
COMMENT: There are five species of rhinoceros, three found Asia (two of which have only one horn) and two in Africa, and all are in danger of extinction. Although they have few natural predators, 97% of rhinos have been lost in the last 30 years and is believed there are only about 11000 wild rhinos in existence. Rhinos have been hunted especially for their horn which is used in traditional Chinese medicine and for carving.
rhizobium rhizobium noun a bacterium that lives in soil and forms nodules on plant roots, taking up nitrogen from the atmosphere and fixing it in the soil
rhizofiltration rhizofiltration noun the use of plants to absorb or precipitate ground-water contaminants in their roots
rhizoid rhizoid noun a thin structure in lower plants such as mosses and liverworts that resembles a root
rhizome rhizome noun a plant stem that lies on or under the ground and has leaf buds and adventitious roots
rhizosphere rhizosphere noun the soil surrounding the roots of a plant
Rhodophyta Rhodophyta plural noun a phylum of red algae, mainly found on the seabed
RI RI abbr remedial investigation
ria ria noun a valley that has been filled by the sea
ribbon ribbon development development noun the building of houses in an uninterrupted row along a main road, usually with fields remaining behind them
ribonucleic ribonucleic acid acid noun full form of RNA
rice rice noun a plant that is the most important cereal crop and the staple food of half the population of the world. Latin name: Oryza sativa.
rich rich adjective 1. (of soil) having many useful nutrients for plant growth 2. (of food) having a high calorific value 3. (of a mixture of fuel and air) having a high ratio of fuel to air 4. ˽ rich in having a lot of something ć Green vegetables are rich in miner-
-rich
184
als. ć The forests are rich in mosses and other forms of moisture-loving plants.
-rich -rich suffix having a lot of something ć a nutrient-rich detergent ć a protein-rich diet ć a species-rich habitat ć oil-rich seeds
richness richness noun the quality of having a lot of something. ı species richness
Richter Richter scale scale noun a scale of measurement of the force of an earthquake from 0 to 10, earthquakes of 5 or more causing damage ć There were no reports of injuries after the quake which reached 5.2 on the Richter scale. (NOTE: The Richter scale
measures the force of an earthquake: the damage caused is measured on the Modified Mercalli scale. The strongest earthquake ever recorded was 8.9.)
ridge ridge noun 1. a long raised section of ground, occurring as part of a mountain range, in a field, on a beach or on the ocean floor 2. a long narrow band of high pressure leading away from the centre of an anticyclone ć A ridge of high pressure is lying across the country.
rift rift valley valley noun a long valley with steep walls, formed when land between two fault lines sinks or possibly when a fault widens as plates forming the Earth’s crust move apart
right right of common of common noun the right to walk on land, graze animals on it, or gather wood
rigid rigid adjective hard or stiff and not easy to bend ć rigid pipes ć a rigid structure rigidity rigidity noun 1. hardness or stiffness and an inability to bend ć Extra strength and rigidity must be provided in the tail section for aircraft with a tail wheel unit. 2. strictness of control or adherence to a way of doing something ć the rigidity of the guidelines
rill rill noun a very narrow stream
rime rime noun the feathery ice formed when freezing fog settles on surfaces ring ring verb to attach a numbered ring to the leg of a bird so that its movements can be recorded
Ringelmann Ringelmann chart chart noun a chart which uses numbers from 0 to 5 to identify the blackness of smoke ring ring road road noun a road which goes round a town centre, usually quite close to builtup areas, allowing traffic to bypass the town and not go through the middle. Compare
orbital road
Rio Declaration Rio Declaration noun a statement laying down the broad principles of environ-
mentally sound development adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992
riparian riparian adjective referring to the bank of a river ć riparian fauna
rip current rip current noun same as riptide
ripple ripple noun a little wave on the surface of water ć Ripple marks can be seen in some sedimentary rocks showing where the sand was marked by the movement of water.
riptide riptide noun 1. an area of rough water in the sea where currents meet 2. a current that flows against the flow of the incoming waves ̈ also called rip current
risk risk noun 1. a combination of the likelihood of injury, damage or loss being caused by a potentially dangerous substance, technology or activity, or by a failure to do something, and the seriousness of the possible consequences 2. something that is regarded as likely to cause injury, damage or loss ć a fire risk ć a health risk Compare
hazard
COMMENT: A substance or practice may have the potential to cause harm, i.e. may be a hazard, but risk only arises if there is a likelihood that something will be harmed by it in a specific set of circumstances. A highly dangerous thing may in fact present only a small risk. Risk assessment is used to decide what the degree and nature of the risk, if any, may be so that measures to reduce or avoid it can be taken.
risk assessment risk assessment noun a process used to determine the risk from a substance, technology or activity
risk management risk management noun the activity of controlling the factors affecting risk
river river noun a large flow of water, running from a natural source in mountains or hills down to the sea ˽ river in flood a river that contains an unusually large amount of water
river river authority authority noun an official body which manages the rivers in an area
riverine riverine adjective referring to a river ć The dam has destroyed the riverine fauna and flora for hundreds of kilometres.
river river terrace terrace noun same as alluvial ter-
race
Rn Rn symbol radon
RNA RNA noun a nucleic acid chain that takes coded information from DNA and translates it into specific proteins. Full form ribonucleic acid. ı DNA
RO RO abbr renewables obligation
roadside roadside verge verge noun ‘ verge
road road user user noun a person who drives on public roads
185
rural
rock rock noun a solid mineral substance which
forms the outside crust of the Earth
rock rock pool pool noun a pool of salt water left in
rocks by the sea
rodent rodent noun a mammal that has sharp
teeth for gnawing, e.g. a rat or mouse
roentgen roentgen
,
röntgen
noun
a
unit
of
meas-
urement of the amount of exposure to X-
rays or gamma rays. Symbol R
roentgen equivalent man roentgen equivalent man
noun a unit
of measurement of ionising radiation
equivalent to the effect of absorbing one
roentgen. Abbr rem (NOTE: It has been re-
placed by the sievert.)
role role noun the set of characters, chemical,
physical and biological, that determine the
position of an organism or species in an ec-
osystem, e.g. aquatic predator or terrestrial
herbivore
root root noun a part of a plant which is usually
under the ground and absorbs water and nu-
trients from the surrounding soil í verb (of
a plant) to produce roots ć The cuttings
root easily in moist sand.
root root crop crop noun a plant that stores edible
material in a root, corm or tuber and is
grown as food (NOTE: Root crops include
carrots, parsnips, swedes and turnips.
Starchy root crops include potatoes, cassa-
vas and yams.)
root root cutting cutting noun a piece of root cut
from a living plant and put in soil, where it
will sprout and grow into a new plant
rootstock rootstock noun a plant with roots onto
which a piece of another plant is grafted. ı
scion
root root system system noun all the roots of a plant
rot rot verb (of organic tissue) to decay or be-
come putrefied because of bacterial or fun-
gal action
rotate rotate verb 1. to turn around on an axis or
fixed point ć The Earth rotates on its axis
approximately every 24 hours. 2. to grow
different crops from year to year in a field
(NOTE: The advantages of rotating crops in-
clude: different crops utilising soil nutrients
differently, pests specific to one crop being
discouraged from spreading, and some
crops such as legumes increasing the nitro-
gen content of the soil if their roots are left
in the soil after harvesting.)
rotation rotation noun the process of turning
around an axis or fixed point ć the rotation
of the Earth ć The speed of rotation deter-
mines the frequency of the generator out-
put.
rotation rotation of crops of crops noun same as crop
rotation
rotenone rotenone noun the active ingredient of the insecticide derris rotor rotor noun 1. a rapidly turning mass of air, surrounded by clouds 2. the central shaft of a generator, which turns inside the stator rough rough adjective having an irregular surface or action roughage roughage noun fibrous matter in food, which cannot be digested. Also called die-
tary fibre
rough rough fish fish noun fish which are not used for sport or food roundworm roundworm noun a type of worm with a round body, some of which are parasites of animals, others of roots of plants ROW ROW abbr rest of the world Royal Society for Nature Conser- Royal Society for Nature Conservation vation noun a UK charity that supports environmental projects and coordinates the activities of Wildlife Trusts. Abbr RSNC Royal Society for the Protection of Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Birds noun a UK charity that works to ensure a good environment for birds and wildlife. Abbr RSPB RSNC RSNC abbr Royal Society for Nature Conservation R strategy R strategy noun a form of reproduction where the mother produces large numbers of offspring which need little attention. Compare K strategy rubber rubber noun a material which can be stretched and compressed, made from a thick white fluid (latex) from a tropical tree rubbish rubbish noun things that are of no longer of any use and are thrown away ruderal ruderal adjective growing in rubbish or on wasteland ruminant ruminant noun an animal that has a stomach with several chambers, e.g. a cow rumination rumination noun the process by which food taken to the stomach of a ruminant is returned to the mouth, chewed again and then swallowed runoff runoff noun 1. the removal of water from a system by opening sluices 2. the flow of rainwater or melted snow from the surface of land into streams and rivers 3. the flow of excess fertiliser or pesticide from farmland into rivers ć Nitrate runoff causes pollution of lakes and rivers. ć Fish are extremely susceptible to runoff of organophosphates.
runoff runoff rate rate noun the amount of excess fertiliser or pesticide from farmland that flows into rivers in a specific period rural rural adjective referring to the country, as opposed to the town ć Many rural areas have been cut off by floods.
rural affairs
186
rural rural affairs affairs noun the activities and con-
cerns of rural communities
rural rural area area noun an area in the countryside
where the main activities are farming or
forestry and where relatively few people
live
rural rural development development noun a programme
of activities undertaken to ensure that rural
areas remain economically and socially
sustainable
rural rural economy economy noun farming and other
businesses in rural areas
Rural Enterprise Scheme Rural Enterprise Scheme
noun a sys-
tem of government support for the adapta-
tion and development of the rural economy,
community, heritage and environment. It is
part of the England Rural Development
Programme.
rural rural environment environment noun the country-
side
rural rural migration migration noun a movement of
people away from the country and into
towns in order to find work
rural rural planning planning noun same as country
planning
rural rural recreation recreation noun same as country-
side recreation
Rural Stewardship Scheme Rural Stewardship Scheme
noun in
Scotland, a scheme of payments to encour-
age farmers to be involved in the protection
and enhancement of the environment, to
support sustainable rural development and
to maintain the prosperity of rural communities
rural rural tourism tourism noun holiday and leisure activities carried out in the countryside
rurban rurban adjective referring to areas that combine the characteristics of agricultural activities found in rural zones with those of suburban living areas and industrialised zones
COMMENT: Rapid extension of urbanisation the world over has created areas that have both urban and rural characteristics. Land planning specialists talk about ‘rurban areas’ and the ‘rurbanisation’ process.
rurbanisation rurbanisation noun the process of rural areas becoming more like urban areas in the type of housing and activities that develop
rust rust noun 1. a reddish powder that forms on the surface of iron and iron compounds on contact with damp air 2. a fungal disease that gives plants a reddish powdery covering í verb to become covered with reddish powder through contact with damp air
R-value R-value noun a unit of measurement of resistance to the flow of heat (NOTE: An in-
sulated outside wall has an R-value of R11, while an internal ceiling has a value of R-19.)
rye rye noun a hardy cereal crop grown in temperate areas. Latin name: Secale cereale.
S
SS symbol sulfur
SAC SAC abbr Special Area of Conservation
safe safe adjective not likely to hurt or cause
damage ć It is not safe to drink the water
here.
safety safety noun the condition of being safe or without danger ˽ to take safety precau-
tions to take measures which make your
actions or condition safe
safety safety guidelines guidelines plural noun a series
of recommendations indicating appropriate
practices and procedures to ensure safe
conditions
safety safety zone zone noun an area in which peo-
ple are not at risk
Sahara Sahara noun a large desert region in
North Africa
Saharan Saharan adjective referring to the Sahara
Sahel Sahel noun a semi-desert region south of
the Sahara where desert conditions are
spreading
Sahelian Sahelian adjective referring to the Sahel
salination salination noun a process by which the
salt concentration of soil or water increas-
es, especially as a result of irrigation in hot
climates. Also called salinisation
saline saline adjective referring to salt
saline saline lagoon lagoon noun an area of water par-
tially or completely separated from the sea
by sandbanks, shingle, rocks or sea defenc-
es and containing a mixture of sea water
and freshwater. It may be tidal or non-tidal,
but always contains water even at very low
tide.
saline saline lake lake noun a low-lying inland lake
with water that contains a lot of salt be-
cause of evaporation and a lack of fresh wa-
ter flowing into it. Also called salt lake
salinisation salinisation
,
salinization
noun
same
as
salination
salinised salinised
,
salinized
adjective
referring
to soil where evaporation leaves salts as a
crust on the dry surface
salinity salinity noun the concentration of salt in
an amount of water or soil
salinometer salinometer noun an instrument for
measuring the amount of salt in a saline so-
lution or in sea water
salmon salmon noun a large sea fish that returns
to a freshwater river to lay its eggs
salmonid salmonid noun a fish belonging to a family that is sensitive to pollution in water and whose presence indicates that the water is pure, e.g. a trout salt salt noun 1. a chemical compound formed from an acid and a metal 2. sodium chloride as part of the diet ć a salt-restricted diet ć He should reduce his intake of salt. í adjective same as salty salt salt dome dome noun an area where salt from beneath the surface of the soil has risen to form a small hill salting salting noun an area of land that is regularly flooded with salt water salt salt lake lake noun same as saline lake salt salt lick lick noun 1. a naturally occurring deposit of salt which animals lick 2. a block of salt given to animals to lick salt salt marsh marsh noun an area of land over which the sea flows at high tide saltpan saltpan noun an area where salt from beneath the soil surface rises to form crystals on the surface salt salt water water noun water which contains salt, e.g. sea water. Compare fresh water saltwater saltwater adjective 1. containing salt water 2. living in salt water salty salty adjective 1. containing salt ć Excess minerals in fertilisers combined with natu-
rally saline ground to make the land so salty that it can no longer produce crops. 2.
tasting of salt sample sample noun a small amount which is representative of the whole ć A sample of water was taken from the lake for analysis. ć A seed sample was tested for germination. ć Factories were asked to provide samples from outflow pipes. í verb to take a small quantity of something to test sanctuary sanctuary noun an area where the wildlife it contains is protected ć A bird sanctuary has been created on the island. sand sand noun fine grains of weathered rock, usually round grains of quartz, found especially on beaches and in the desert sand sand bar bar noun a long bank of sand in shallow water either in a river or the sea sand sand beach beach noun same as sandy beach sand sand dune dune noun an area of sand blown by the wind into a small hill or ridge, often crescent-shaped in the desert and some-
sandpit
188
times covered with sparse grass when near
the sea
sandpit sandpit noun a place where sand is ex-
tracted from the ground
sandstone sandstone noun a sedimentary rock
formed of round particles of quartz
sandstorm sandstorm noun a high wind in the
desert, which carries large amounts of sand
with it
sandy sandy beach beach noun a beach covered with
sand rather than pebbles or shingle. Also
called sand beach
sandy sandy soil soil noun soil containing a high
proportion of sand particles
sanitary sanitary adjective referring to hygiene or
to health
sanitary sanitary landfill landfill, sanitary landfilling
noun a method of disposing of solid waste
on land in lined pits to avoid contaminating
surface or ground water and other public
health and environmental risks
sanitation sanitation noun the systems of waste dis-
posal and water provision that are the basis
of public hygiene ć Poor sanitation in
crowded conditions can result in the spread
of disease.
sap sap noun a liquid carrying nutrients which
flows inside a plant
SAP SAP abbr Species Action Plan
sapele sapele noun a fine African hardwood,
formerly widely exploited but now becom-
ing rarer. Genus: Entandrophragma.
sapling sapling noun a young tree
sappy sappy adjective referring to tree trunks or
branches, or wood, that are full of sap
sapro- sapro- prefix decay or rotting
saprobe saprobe noun a bacterium that lives in
rotting matter
saprobic saprobic adjective referring to a classifi-
cation of organisms according to the way in
which they tolerate pollution. ı mesos-
aprobic, oligosaprobic, polysaprobic
saprogenic saprogenic
,
saprogenous
adjective
re-
ferring to organisms that grow on decaying
organic matter
sapropel sapropel noun a layer of decaying organ-
ic matter at the bottom of a body of water
saprophagous saprophagous adjective referring to or-
ganisms that feed on decaying organic mat-
ter
saprophyte saprophyte noun an organism that lives
and feeds on dead or decaying organic mat-
ter, e.g. a fungus
saprophytic saprophytic adjective referring to organ-
isms that live and feed on dead or decaying
organic matter
saproplankton saproplankton plural noun plankton
that live and feed on dead or decaying or-
ganic matter
saproxylic saproxylic adjective referring to inverte-
brate animals, fungi and other organisms
that live in the rotting wood of dead trees
sapwood sapwood noun an outer layer of wood on
the trunk of a tree, which is younger than
the heartwood inside and carries the sap. ı
heartwood
sarcoma sarcoma noun a cancer of connective tis-
sue such as bone, muscle or cartilage
Sargasso Sargasso Sea Sea noun an area of still water
in the North Atlantic Ocean, which is sur-
rounded by currents and contains drifting
weed
satellite satellite noun 1. an astronomical object
that orbits a larger body in space ć The
Moon is the Earth’s only satellite. 2. a man-
made device that orbits the Earth, receiv-
ing, processing and transmitting signals
and generating images such as weather pic-
tures
saturate saturate verb to fill something with the
maximum amount of a liquid that can be
absorbed ć Nitrates leached from forest
soils, showing that the soils are saturated
with nitrogen.
saturation saturation noun the state of being filled
with the maximum amount of something
which can be absorbed ć The various types
of fog are classified by the manner in which
saturation is reached.
saturation saturation zone zone noun the ground below
the water table
saturnism saturnism noun same as plumbism
savanna savanna
,
savannah
noun
a
dry
grass-
covered plain with few trees, especially in
South America or Africa, where growth is
abundant during the rainy season but vege-
tation dies back during the dry season
save-all save-all noun a container for keeping
waste products so that they can be reused or
recycled
scale scale noun 1. a series of marks at fixed in-
tervals used as a reference standard in
measurement ć This rule has scales in
inches and centimetres. 2. a small overlap-
ping plate of tissue on the skin of reptiles
and fish 3. a hard white calcium layer that
forms in containers and pipes carrying hot
water in areas where the water supply con-
tains a lot of calcium
scaly scaly adjective covered in flakes of tissue,
like a reptile or fish
scarce scarce adjective 1. not available in suffi-
cient amounts 2. uncommon or rare
189
sea level
scarcity scarcity noun 1. a shortage in the supply
of something 2. the infrequency with which
something occurs
scavenge scavenge verb 1. (of organisms) to feed
on dead and decaying matter 2. to remove
impurities or pollutants from a substance
scavenger scavenger noun 1. a mammal or bird
that feeds on animals which have been
killed by lions or other predators 2. same as
detritivore 3. generally, any organism
which feeds on dead animals, dead plants
or refuse left unconsumed by other organ-
isms 4. a substance added to a chemical re-
action or mixture to remove impurities or
neutralise something
scavenging scavenging noun 1. the activity of eat-
ing organic matter or dead animals ć Vul-
tures and hyenas sometimes feed by scav-
enging. 2. the removal of impurities from a
gas
scenery scenery noun the landscape or surround-
ings, especially when regarded as attractive
ć beautiful mountain scenery
scent scent noun 1. a smell given off by a sub-
stance that stimulates the sense of smell 2.
a pleasant smell ć the scent of flowers
schist schist noun a type of metamorphic rock
that splits easily into flakes
schistosomiasis schistosomiasis noun a tropical dis-
ease caused by flukes taken in from water
affecting the intestine or bladder. Also
called bilharziasis
school school noun a group of water animals
which all move together and keep an equal
distance apart, e.g. fish or whales
SCI SCI abbr Site of Community Importance
scientific scientific method method noun the systematic
method used in investigations of the natural
world, which include designing controlled
experiments, collecting data and develop-
ing and testing hypotheses
scion scion noun a piece of a plant which is
grafted onto a rootstock
sclerophyll sclerophyll noun a woody plant that
grows in hot dry regions, with thick leath-
ery evergreen leaves that lose very little
moisture
-scope -scope suffix an instrument for examining
by sight
Scots Scots pine pine noun a common commercial-
ly grown European conifer. Latin name: Pi-
nus sylvestris.
Scottish Natural Heritage Scottish Natural Heritage
noun an
official body responsible for the conserva-
tion of fauna and flora in Scotland
scrap scrap noun 1. waste material ć scrap pa-
per ć scrap metal ć Some 50% of steel is
made from recycled scrap. (NOTE: no plural)
2. a small piece of something ć Scraps of paper had blown all over the grass.
scrapie scrapie noun a brain disease of sheep and goats scree scree noun an area of loose rocks and stones at the base of the side of a mountain screen screen noun 1. something which protects 2. a display device capable of showing a quantity of information, e.g. a computer monitor 3. a hedge or row of trees grown to shelter other plants, to protect something from the wind or to prevent something from being seen í verb 1. to examine people, animals or plants to test for the presence of something ć All air passengers, parcels and freight will be screened for the presence of radioactivity. 2. to select somebody or something as suitable for a particular purpose screening screening noun 1. the process of testing for the presence of something 2. the process of selecting somebody or something as suitable for a particular purpose scree scree slope slope noun a part of a mountain side covered with loose rock and stones scrub scrub noun 1. small trees and bushes 2. an area of land covered with small trees and bushes í verb to remove sulfur and other pollutants from waste gases produced by power stations scrubber scrubber noun a device for removing sulfur and other pollutants from waste gases scrubland scrubland noun land covered with small trees and bushes Se Se symbol selenium seabed seabed noun the bottom of the sea ć These fish feed on minute debris on the seabed.
seabird seabird noun a bird which lives near the sea and eats fish, e.g. a seagull seaboard seaboard noun an area of land along a stretch of sea ć the eastern seaboard of the USA
sea sea defences defences plural noun same as
coastal defences
sea sea fog fog noun fog that forms when cold air is above much warmer water seagull seagull noun a bird, of several species, that lives near the sea and has a heavy build, a rather hooked beak and webbed feet sea sea level level noun the average level of the surface of the sea. ı mean sea level
COMMENT: Sea level is taken as the base for references to altitude: a mountain 300 m high is three hundred metres above sea level. The Dead Sea is 395 m below sea level. Sea levels in general have risen over
sea loch
190
the past 100 years and much more rapid
rises are forecast if the greenhouse effect
results in the melting of the polar ice caps.
Sea level is also used as a basis for meas-
uring barometric pressure.
sea sea loch loch noun a long inlet of the sea in
Scotland
seam seam noun a layer of mineral in rock be-
neath the Earth’s surface ć The coal seams
are 2 m thick. ć The gold seam was worked
out some years ago.
sea sea mist mist noun mist that forms over the
sea when the air is colder than the water
season season noun one of the four parts into
which a year is divided, i.e. spring, sum-
mer, autumn and winter í verb to allow the
sap in timber to dry so that the wood can be
used for making things
seasonal seasonal adjective referring to or occur-
ring at a season ć seasonal changes in tem-
perature ć Plants grow according to a sea-
sonal pattern.
seasonal boundary layer seasonal boundary layer
noun the
layer of water immediately above the ther-
mocline
seasonality seasonality noun the characteristic of
being seasonal
sea sea wall wall noun a wall built along a stretch
of coast to protect it against erosion by the
action of the waves
seawater seawater noun the salty water in the sea
seaweed seaweed noun any of the large algae that
grow in the sea and are usually attached to
a surface
second second noun 1. a base SI unit of measure-
ment of time, equal to one sixtieth of a
minute 2. a unit of measurement of the cir-
cumference of a circle, equal to one sixtieth
of a degree í adjective coming after the
first
secondary secondary adjective 1. less important
than something else ć a secondary reason
2. coming after something else ć second-
ary thickening of stems in plants ı primary,
tertiary
secondary secondary consumer consumer noun an animal
such as a carnivore that eats other consum-
ers in the food chain. ı primary consumer
secondary secondary forest forest noun natural growth
occurring in a forest after a major disrup-
tion such as fire damage or logging activi-
ties
secondary secondary host host noun a host which a
parasite settles on before moving to its pri-
mary host
secondary particulates secondary particulates
plural noun
particles of matter formed in the air by
chemical reactions such as smog
secondary secondary productivity productivity noun the rate at which primary material is converted into animal tissue by a herbivore secondary secondary substance substance noun a chemical substance found in plant leaves, believed to be a form of defence against herbivores secondary secondary succession succession noun an ecological community which develops in a place where a previous community has been removed as a result of fire, flooding, cutting down of trees or some other event second second home home noun same as holiday
home
secrete secrete verb (of a gland) to produce a substance such as a hormone, oil or enzyme secretion secretion noun a substance produced by a gland sedentary sedentary adjective 1. referring to marine invertebrates that do not swim about and remain attached to a rock for most of their lives 2. referring to animals that do not migrate 3. referring to a person who remains seated for long periods or takes little exercise in a way that can be bad for health ć a sedentary lifestyle sediment sediment noun a mass of solid particles, usually insoluble, that fall to the bottom of a liquid sedimentary sedimentary adjective referring to rock formed from material deposited by water, wind or ice and then subjected to pressure.
ı igneous, metamorphic
sedimentation sedimentation noun 1. the process of formation of sedimentary rock 2. the process of solid particles falling to the bottom of a liquid, e.g. in the treatment of sewage sedimentation sedimentation tank tank noun a tank in which sewage is allowed to stand so that solid particles can sink to the bottom seed seed noun a fertilised ovule that forms a new plant on germination ˽ to set seed to produce seed ć plants left after flowering to set seed í verb 1. (of a plant) to produce offspring by dropping seed which germinates and grows into plants in following seasons ć The poppies seeded all over the garden. ć The tree was left standing to allow it to seed the cleared area around it. 2. to sow seeds in an area ć The area of woodland was cut and then seeded with pines. 3. to drop crystals of salt, carbon dioxide and other substances onto clouds from an aeroplane in order to encourage rain to fall seed seed bank bank noun 1. all the seeds existing in the soil 2. a collection of seeds from plants, kept for conservation or research purposes
191
semiconductor
seedcase seedcase noun a hard outside cover that protects the seeds of some plants seedling seedling noun a young plant that has recently grown from a seed seed seed tree tree noun a tree left standing when others are cut down, to allow it to drop seeds on the cleared land around it seep seep verb (of a liquid ) to flow slowly through a substance ć Water seeped through the rock. ć Chemicals seeped out of the container. seepag seepage e noun the action of flowing slowly seepage seepage tank tank, seepage pit noun in some septic tank systems, a deep hole into which partly decomposed sewage drains before dispersing slowly into the surrounding soil SEERAD SEERAD abbr Scottish Executive Environment and Rural Affairs Department seiche seiche noun a tide in a lake, usually caused by the wind or by movements in water level seism seism noun an earthquake seismic seismic adjective referring to earthquakes seismograph seismograph noun an instrument for measuring earthquakes. ı Richter scale seismological seismological adjective referring to the study of earthquakes seismologist seismologist noun a scientist who studies earthquakes seismology seismology noun the scientific study of earthquakes seismonasty seismonasty noun a response of plants to a physical stimulus such as touch select select verb to identify plants or animals with desirable characteristics such as high yield or disease resistance as part of the activity of breeding new varieties selection selection noun 1. the process of identifying plants or animals with desirable characteristics such as high yield or disease resistance as part of the activity of breeding new varieties 2. an individual chosen from a group in a breeding programme on the basis of distinctive characteristics selective selective herbicide herbicide, selective weedkiller noun a weedkiller which is designed to kill only plants with specific characteristics and not others selenium selenium noun a non-metallic trace element, used in photoelectric cells. Symbol
Se (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Se; the atomic number is 34 and the atomic weight
is 78.96.)
self- self- prefix 1. of itself 2. automatic
self-fertilisation self-fertilisation
,
self-fertilization
noun the fertilisation of a plant or inverte-
brate animal with its own pollen or sperm
self-pollination self-pollination noun the pollination of
a plant by pollen from its own flowers.
Compare cross-pollination
self-purification self-purification noun the ability of wa-
ter to clean itself of polluting substances
self-regulating self-regulating adjective controlling it-
self without outside intervention ć Most
tropical rainforests are self-regulating en-
vironments.
self-seeded self-seeded adjective referring to a plant
that grows from seed that has fallen to the
ground naturally rather than being sown in-
tentionally ć Several self-seeded poppies
have come up in the vegetable garden.
self-sterile self-sterile adjective referring to a plant
that cannot fertilise itself from its own
flowers
self-sterility self-sterility noun the inability of a plant
to fertilise itself
self-sufficiency self-sufficiency noun a simple tradi-
tional way of farming with little use of
modern technology that provides only
enough food and other necessary materials
for a family
self-sufficient self-sufficient adjective 1. able to pro-
vide enough food and other necessary ma-
terials for a family, often by means of a
simple traditional way of farming with little
use of modern technology ć We’re self-suf-
ficient in salad crops from the garden in the
summer time. 2. referring to provision of
the required quantity of a product locally or
for yourself, without needing to purchase
or import it ć The country is self-sufficient
in barley.
self-thinning self-thinning noun a process by which
only a few individuals survive in a group of
plants of the same age, since plants cannot
escape competition by moving away to a
different place
sell-by sell-by date date noun a date on the label of a
food product which is the last date on
which the product should be sold and be
guaranteed as of good quality
selva selva noun tropical rainforest in the Ama-
zon basin
semeloparity semeloparity noun a form of reproduc-
tion where the animal or plant reproduces
once only, as in the case of salmon
semi- semi- prefix half
semi-arid semi-arid noun receiving very little rain
semiconductor semiconductor noun a material with
conductive properties between those of a
conductor such as a metal and an insulator
semi-desert
192
semi-desert semi-desert noun an area of land which
has very little rain
semi-natural semi-natural forest forest noun a wooded
area that contains mainly native trees and
shrubs which have not been planted
semiochemical semiochemical adjective a chemical re-
leased by animals, especially insects, as a
means of communication, e.g. a pherom-
one
semi-parasitic semi-parasitic adjective referring to an
organism living as a parasite but also un-
dergoing photosynthesis
semi-permeable semi-permeable adjective referring to
something such as a membrane that allows
a liquid to pass through but not substances
dissolved in the liquid
senescence senescence noun the process of grow-
ing older
sensitise sensitise
,
sensitize
verb
to
make
some-
one sensitive to a substance such as an al-
lergen or drug
sensitive sensitive adjective 1. referring to the
ability to respond to stimuli ć The leaves of
the plant are sensitive to frost. 2. referring
to devices that are able to record very small
changes ć The earthquake was a small one
and only registered on the most sensitive
equipment.
sensitivity sensitivity noun 1. the ability or tenden-
cy to respond to stimuli. Also called irrita-
bility 2. the ability to record very small
changes ć the scanner’s sensitivity to small
objects
sensory sensory adjective referring to the senses
SEPA SEPA abbr Scottish Environment Protec-
tion Agency
sepal sepal noun a part of the calyx of a flower,
usually green and sometimes hairy
separate separate adjective 1. distinct and not re-
lated 2. not joined or together í verb 1. to
move or keep something apart 2. to distin-
guish one thing from another 3. to divide or
split something into its parts
separate separate collection collection, separated col-
lection noun the collection of different
types of solid waste separately, often in
containers of different colours, so that they
can be recycled, reused or disposed of in
different ways
separate separate system system noun a drainage sys-
tem where sewage and rainwater are not
collected together but drain through differ-
ent channels
separator separator noun a device which removes
a component from a mixture or combina-
tion ć The water separator will extract a
percentage of free moisture from the air.
septic septic adjective referring to the process of decomposition of organic matter septic septic tank tank noun 1. an underground tank for household sewage that is not connected to the main drainage system and in which human waste is decomposed by the action of anaerobic bacteria 2. a tank at a sewage treatment works in which sewage is collected to begin its treatment by anaerobic bacteria
sere sere noun a series of plant communities which succeed one another in an area
sessile sessile adjective 1. attached directly to a branch or stem without a stalk ć The acorns of a sessile oak tree have no stalks or very short stalks. 2. permanently attached to a surface
set set aside aside verb to use a piece of formerly arable land for something other than growing food crops. It may be allowed to lie fallow, be planted as woodland or with industrial crops, or be used for recreation.
set-aside set-aside noun a piece of formerly arable land used for something other than growing food crops
settle settle verb 1. to stop moving and stay in one place 2. (of sediment) to fall to the bottom of a liquid
settlement settlement noun 1. a place where people have established a community 2. (of sediment) the process of falling to the bottom of a liquid
settling settling basin basin, settling pond noun a tank in which a liquid is allowed to stand so that solid particles can sink to the bottom
Seveso Seveso noun a town in Italy, scene of a disaster in 1976 when tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin gas escaped from a chemical factory during the manufacture of 2,4,5-T sewage sewage noun waste water and other material such as faeces, carried away in sewers. Also called sewage waste
sewage sewage disposal disposal noun the removal of sewage from houses and other buildings for processing
sewage sewage effluent effluent noun liquid or solid waste carried away in sewers
sewage sewage lagoon lagoon noun a pond used to purify sewage by allowing sunlight, oxygen and bacteria to act on the mixture of sewage and water
sewage sewage sludge sludge noun the solid or semisolid part of sewage
sewage sewage treatment plant treatment plant noun a place where sewage from houses and other buildings is brought for processing. Also called
sewage farm, sewage works
193
SIC
COMMENT: A modern sewage treatment plant works by passing the sewage through a series of processes. It is first screened to remove large particles, then passed into sedimentation tanks where part of the solids remaining in the sewage settle. The sewage then continues into an aerator which adds air to activate the bacteria. The sewage then settles in a second sedimentation tank before being discharged into a river or the sea and the resulting sludge is digested anaerobically by bacteria in digestion tanks before being put on the land as biosolids, burnt, or otherwise disposed of.
sewage sewage waste waste noun same as sewage
sewage sewage works works noun same as sewage
treatment plant
sewer sewer noun a large pipe or tunnel which takes waste water and material such as faeces away from buildings sewerage sewerage noun a system of pipes and treatment plants which collect and dispose of sewage in a town
shade shade plant plant noun a plant which tolerates and grows in shade
shading shading noun the action of cutting off the light of the sun ć Parts of the field near tall trees suffer from shading.
shale shale noun sedimentary rock formed from clay, which cracks along horizontal straight lines shear shear wave wave noun a type of slow seismic wave that alters direction as it passes through different types of rock
shed shed verb to let something fall off as part of a natural process ć Deciduous trees shed their leaves in autumn. ć Deer shed their antlers after the mating season.
sheep sheep noun an animal farmed for its wool, meat and milk
sheet sheet lightning lightning noun lightning which lights up the sky rather than producing a single visible flash
shelf shelf noun a layer of rock or ice which juts out
shelf-life shelf-life noun the number of days or weeks for which a product can stay on the shelf of a shop and still be good to use
shell shell noun a hard outer covering of an animal, egg or seed
shellfish shellfish noun a sea animal that has a hard shell and is used as food
shelter shelter noun a structure or feature providing protection from wind, sun, rain or other weather conditions í verb to protect something from weather conditions
shelter shelter belt belt noun a row of trees planted to give protection from wind
shelterwood shelterwood noun a large area of trees
left standing when others are cut, to act as
shelter for seedling trees
shield shield noun a large area of very old rocks
ć the Canadian shield
shifting shifting cultivation cultivation noun 1. an agricul-
tural practice using the rotation of fields
rather than crops, short cropping periods
followed by long fallows and the mainte-
nance of fertility by the regeneration of
vegetation. ı fallow 2. a form of cultivation
practised in some tropical countries, where
land is cultivated until it is exhausted and
then left as the farmers move on to another
area
shingle shingle noun the small pebbles found on
beaches, 1–7 cm in diameter
shock shock noun a sudden violent impact
shore shore noun land at the edge of the sea or
a lake
COMMENT: The shore is divided into differ-
ent zones. The upper shore is the area which is only occasionally covered by sea water at the very highest tides. The middle shore is the main area of shore which is covered and uncovered by the sea at each
tide. The lower shore is the area which is very rarely uncovered and only at the lowest tides.
shorebird shorebird noun a bird which lives and
nests on the shore
shoreline shoreline noun an area of land at the
edge of the sea or a lake
shoreline management plan shoreline management plan
noun a
official plan for flood and coastal defence
for a specific area of coast, taking into ac-
count local social and economic issues as
well as environmental concerns
short-day short-day plant plant noun a plant that flow-
ers as the days get shorter in the autumn,
e.g. a chrysanthemum. Compare long-day
plant
short short ton ton noun US same as ton
shower shower noun a brief fall of rain or snow
shrivel shrivel verb to become dry and wrinkled
ć The leaves shrivelled in the prolonged
drought.
shrub shrub noun a perennial plant with several
woody stems
shrubby shrubby adjective growing like a shrub
SiSi symbol silicon
SISI noun the international system of metric
measurements. Full form Système Inter-
national
sib sib
,
sibling
noun
one
of
the
offspring
of
the same parents ć Brothers and sisters are
all siblings.
SIC SIC abbr Site of Community Importance
sick building syndrome
194
sick building sick building syndrome syndrome noun a set of symptoms that affect people when they are in a building and not when they leave the building, but that cannot be traced to specific pollutants or sources within the building. Compare building-related illness
COMMENT: Symptoms of sick building syndrome include headaches, sore throats, dry skin, general tired feeling and depression. Some features that seem to be common to the buildings causing these symptoms are artificial ventilation systems with windows that do not open and energy-efficient heating, bright lighting and carpeting on floors.
-side -side suffix side or edge ć eroded hillsides ć waterside plants
side side effect effect noun a secondary often undesirable effect ć Draining the marsh has had several unexpected side effects.
sievert sievert noun a unit of measurement of the absorbed dose of radiation, calculated as the amount of radiation from one milligram of radium at a distance of one centimetre for one hour. Symbol Sv
significant significant adjective 1. important, considerable or notable ć There has been a significant reduction in the amount of raw sewage being released into the sea. 2. too closely linked statistically to be the result of chance ć The difference is not statistically significant.
significant significant figures figures plural noun the figures in a decimal number that express accuracy, beginning with the first non-zero figure on the left and ending with the figure on the right ć shown to three significant figures
significantly significantly adverb 1. to any considerable or notable degree ć The amount has not been significantly reduced. 2. in a way that is linked statistically
silage silage noun food for cattle formed of grass and other green plants, cut and stored in silos
silencer silencer noun a device to reduce noise, fitted to a machine
silica silica noun a mineral which forms quartz and sand, and is used to make glass. Also called silicon dioxide
silicate silicate noun 1. a chemical compound of silicon and oxygen, the most widespread form of mineral found in most rocks and soils 2. particles of silica found in clay
silicon silicon noun an element with semiconductor properties, used in crystal form as a base for the manufacture of integrated circuits (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Si; the
atomic number is 14 and the atomic weight
is 28.09.)
silicon silicon dioxide dioxide noun same as silica
silicosis silicosis noun a type of pneumoconiosis
caused by inhaling silica dust from mining
or stone-crushing operations, which makes
breathing difficult and can lead to emphy-
sema and bronchitis
silo silo noun a large container for storing
grain or silage
silt silt noun 1. soft mud which settles at the
bottom of water 2. particles of fine quartz
with a diameter of 0.002–0.06 mm í verb ˽
to silt up (of a harbour or river) to become
full of silt, so that boats can no longer sail
siltation siltation
,
silting
noun
the
action
of
de-
positing silt at the bottom of water, or the
state of having a silt deposit ć increased
sedimentation and siltation in backwaters
silver silver noun a white metallic element
which is not corroded by exposure to air
(NOTE: The chemical symbol is Ag; the
atomic number is 47 and the atomic weight
is 107.87.)
silvi- silvi- prefix trees or woods
silvicide silvicide noun a substance which kills
trees
silvicolous silvicolous adjective living or growing
in woodland
silvicultural silvicultural adjective referring to the
cultivation of trees
silviculture silviculture noun the cultivation of trees
as part of forestry
simazine simazine a herbicide that kills germinat-
ing seedling, used as a ground spray (NOTE:
It is under review for withdrawal from use in
the European Union.)
similarity similarity coefficient coefficient noun the degree
to which two things such as areas of vege-
tation are alike
sink sink verb to fall to the bottom of water ć
sank to the river bed (NOTE: sinks – sank –
sunk) í noun 1. a place into which a sub-
stance passes to be stored or to be absorbed.
ı carbon sink 2. a low-lying piece of land
where water collects to form a pond
sinkhole sinkhole noun same as sink noun 2
sirenian sirenian noun a large marine animal liv-
ing in warm estuaries, e.g. a manatee. Or-
der: Sirenia.
sirocco sirocco noun a dry wind blowing from
the desert northwards in North Africa
site site noun 1. a place or position of some-
thing ć The rare orchid grows on only two
sites. ć Hazardous chemicals found on the
site include arsenic, lead mercury and cya-
nide. ı honeypot site, landfill site 2. a ge-
195
smelter
ographically defined area whose extent is
clearly marked
Site of Community Importance Site of Community Importance
noun a place recognised by the European
Commission as important in maintaining or
restoring the conservation status of the re-
gion in which it occurs. Abbr SCI
Site of Special Scientific Interest Site of Special Scientific Interest
noun in England, Wales and Scotland, an
area of land which is officially protected to
maintain its fauna, flora or geology. Abbr
SSSI
siting siting noun the act of putting something
or being in a particular place ć Siting the
windfarm offshore has attracted criticism
from bird conservation groups.
Sitka Sitka spruce spruce noun a temperate softwood
coniferous tree, that is fast-growing. It is
used for making paper. Latin name: Picea
sitchensis.
skyline skyline noun a line of hills or buildings
seen against the sky ć They want to protect
mountain skylines from the planting of con-
ifers.
slack slack noun a valley with a high water table
between sand dunes
slack slack water water noun the part of the tidal cy-
cle occurring between the ebb and flood
tides at the point when the flows are revers-
ing direction
slag slag noun waste matter which floats on
top of the molten metal during smelting,
used to lighten heavy soils, e.g. clay, and
also for making cement
slag slag heap heap noun a large pile of waste ma-
terial from an industrial process such as
smelting or from coal mining
slash and burn agriculture slash and burn agriculture
noun a
form of agriculture in which forest is cut
down and burnt to create open space for
growing crops. Also called swidden farm-
ing (NOTE: The space is abandoned after
several crops have been grown and then
more forest is cut down.)
slate slate noun a hard metamorphic rock
which splits easily along cleavage lines,
used especially for making roofs
slaughter slaughter noun the killing of a large
number of animals í verb 1. to kill animals
for food 2. to kill large numbers of animals
ć Thousands of seals were slaughtered an-
nually.
sleet sleet noun icy rain í verb to fall as icy
rain
slick slick noun a patch of something thin or
slippery on a surface, especially of oil float-
ing on water
slime slime noun 1. a mucous substance secreted by an organism such as a snail 2. a coating of green algae on rocks or other surfaces 3. an unpleasant slippery substance slip-off slip-off slope slope noun a gently sloping bank on the inside of a river with large bends (meanders) slough slough noun dead tissue, especially dead skin, which has separated from healthy tissue í verb (of a snake) to let dead skin fall off as part of a natural process sludge sludge noun 1. a thick wet substance, especially wet mud or snow 2. the solid or semi-solid part of sewage sludge sludge composting composting noun the decomposition of sewage for use as a fertiliser or mulch sludge sludge digestion digestion noun a final treatment of sewage when it is digested anaerobically by bacteria sludge sludge gas gas noun methane mixed with carbon dioxide which is given off by sewage sludge sludge gulper gulper noun a large truck which removes sludge from cesspits and septic tanks sludge sludge processing processing noun treatment of the solid or semi-solid part of sewage so that it can safely be dumped or used as a fertiliser slug slug noun an invertebrate animal without a shell. It causes damage to plants by eating leaves or underground parts, especially in wet conditions. slug slug pellet pellet noun a small hard piece of a mixture containing a substance such as metaldehyde which kills slugs. Slug pellets are usually coloured blue-green. sluice sluice noun a channel for water, especially through a dam or other barrier sluice sluice gate gate noun a mechanism for controlling the amount of water that passes through a channel slum slum noun an area of a city where the buildings are in bad condition and often where a lot of people live very closely together í adjective referring to a slum ć slum housing ć slum conditions slurry slurry noun liquid or semi-liquid waste from animals, stored in tanks or lagoons and treated to be used as fertiliser small-scale small-scale adjective small in size or limited in scope. Compare large-scale smelt smelt verb to extract metal from ore by heating it smelter smelter noun a processing facility where ore is heated and metal extracted from it
smelting
196
smelting smelting noun the process of extracting metal from ore by heating smog smog noun a form of air pollution in towns, caused by warm damp air combined with exhaust fumes from cars. ı photo-
chemical smog
smoke smoke noun a white, grey or black mass of small particles in the air, produced by something which is burning í verb to emit smoke ć The volcano is still smoking. smoke smoke control area control area noun an area of a town where it is not permitted to produce smoke from chimneys or fires smokeless smokeless adjective 1. referring to a place where there is no smoke or where smoking is not allowed 2. referring to a fuel which does not produce smoke when it is burned smokeless smokeless zone zone noun an area of a town where it is not permitted to produce smoke from chimneys or fires smokestack smokestack noun a very tall industrial chimney, usually containing several flues smoky smoky adjective 1. full of smoke ć a smoky room 2. producing a lot of smoke ć a smoky fire smut smut noun 1. a small black piece of carbon emitted from a fire ć Smuts from the oil depot fire covered the town. 2. a disease of cereal plants, caused by a fungus, that affects the development of the grain and makes it look black Sn Sn symbol tin SNF SNF abbr spent nuclear fuel snow snow noun water which falls as light pieces of white ice in cold weather í verb to fall as snow ć It snowed heavily during the night. snowfall snowfall noun a quantity of snow that comes down at any one time ć A heavy snowfall blocked the main roads. snowflake snowflake noun a small piece of snow formed from a number of ice crystals snow-melt snow-melt noun the melting of snow in spring, often the cause of floods snowstorm snowstorm noun a heavy fall of snow accompanied by wind snowy snowy adjective referring to weather or a period when a lot of snow falls ć a period of snowy weather ć a snowy night soakaway soakaway noun a channel in the ground filled with gravel, which takes rainwater from a downpipe or liquid sewage from a septic tank and allows it to be absorbed into the surrounding soil soar soar verb (of a bird) to fly high up or stay airborne without any movement of the
wings by floating on the upward movement of warm air SoCC SoCC abbr Species of Conservation Concern
social social adjective referring to a group of animals or people social social carnivore carnivore noun a meat-eating animal that lives and hunts in a group, e.g. a lion or wolf. Compare herbivore, omni-
vore
social social cost cost noun the full cost to society of an activity, including hidden costs as well as direct costs
social social insect insect noun an insect such as an ant or termite that lives in a large group social social responsibility responsibility noun concern for the effects upon society of activities that are undertaken, such as a concern for the effects on people’s health of environmental pollution and industrial processes society society noun 1. a group of people or animals that live together in an organised way 2. a group of plants within a larger community sociology sociology noun the study of human or other societies soda soda noun same as sodium hydroxide soda soda lake lake noun a salt lake with a high concentration of sodium in the water sodium sodium noun a chemical element which is a constituent of common salt and essential to animal life (NOTE: The chemical sym-
bol is Na; the atomic number of 11 and the atomic weight is 22.99.)
sodium sodium chloride chloride noun common salt. Formula: NaCl. sodium sodium hydroxide hydroxide noun a compound of sodium and water which is used to make soap and to clear blocked drains. Formula: NaOH. Also called caustic soda, soda
softwood softwood noun 1. the open-grained wood produced by pine trees and other conifers 2. a pine tree or other conifer that produces such wood. Compare hardwood soil soil noun the earth in which plants grow. ı
chernozem, loess, podsol, subsoil, topsoil
COMMENT: Soil is a mixture of mineral particles, decayed organic matter and water. Topsoil contains chemical substances which are leached through into the subsoil where they are retained. Soils are classified according to the areas of the world in which they are found, according to the types of minerals they contain or according to the stage of development they have reached.
Soil Association Soil Association noun a UK organisation that certifies organically grown food
197
solid
soil compaction soil compaction noun the process of developing a close, densely packed soil structure, as a result of pressure or heavy loads, or the state of being densely packed soil conservation soil conservation noun the use of a range of methods to prevent soil from being eroded or overcultivated soil soil creep creep noun a slow movement of soil downhill soil soil erosion erosion noun the removal of soil by the effects of rain, wind, sea or cultivation practices soil soil fauna fauna plural noun invertebrate animals that live in soil, e.g. earthworms soil soil fertility fertility noun the potential capacity of soil to support plant growth based on its content of nitrogen and other nutrients soil soil flora flora plural noun microorganisms such as fungi and algae that live in soil soil soil horizon horizon noun a layer of soil that is of a different colour or texture from other layers (NOTE: There are four soil horizons: the
A horizon or topsoil containing humus; the
B horizon or subsoil containing minerals leached from the topsoil and little organic matter; the C horizon or weathered rock;
and the D horizon or bedrock.)
soilless soilless gardening gardening noun same as hy-
droponics
soil soil map map noun a map showing the different types of soil found in an area soil soil nutrition nutrition noun 1. the condition of soil in terms of the plant nutrients it contains 2. the application of fertilisers to soil ć use muck and some seaweed for soil nutrition soil organic soil organic matter matter noun decayed or decaying vegetation that forms part of soil. Abbr SOM soil soil profile profile noun a vertical section through the soil showing the different layers. ı soil horizon soil soil salinity salinity noun the quantity of mineral salts found in a soil (NOTE: High soil salinity
is detrimental to most agricultural crops, although some plants are adapted to such
conditions.)
soil soil sample sample noun a small quantity of soil used for testing soil soil science science noun the scientific study of all aspects of soil, including its formation, distribution and structure soil soil sterilant sterilant noun something used to remove microorganisms from soil, e.g. a chemical or steam soil soil structure structure noun the arrangement of soil particles in groups or individually, giving a loose or firm texture
soil soil texture texture noun the structure of soil
based on the relative proportions of parti-
cles of different sizes it is composed of
(NOTE: There are four main classes of soil
texture: clay, silt, sand and loam. Loam,
which contains a mixture of soil particles, is
the most suitable for growing crops.)
solar solar adjective 1. referring to the Sun 2.
using the energy of the Sun or driven by
power from the Sun
solar solar cell cell noun a photoelectric device
that converts solar energy into electricity
solar solar collector collector noun same as solar pan-
el
solar solar eclipse eclipse noun a situation when the
Moon passes between the Sun and the
Earth during the daytime and the shadow of
the Moon falls across the Earth, so cutting
off the Sun’s light. Compare lunar eclipse
solar solar energy energy noun electricity produced
from the Sun’s radiation. Also called solar
power, solar-generated energy, solar-
generated power
COMMENT: The Sun emits radiation in the form of ultraviolet rays, visible light and infrared heating rays. Solar energy can be
collected by various methods, most often by heating water, which is then passed into storage tanks. Although solar energy is easy to collect, the problem is in storing it in order to make sure that power is avail-
able for use during the night or when it is cloudy.
solar solar gain gain noun the amount of heat in a
building derived from solar radiation
through windows or transparent walls
solar-generated energy solar-generated energy
, solar-gen-
erated power noun same as solar energy
solar solar heating heating noun the use of the Sun’s
energy to heat water as it passes through
heat-absorbing panels
solarisation solarisation
,
solarization
noun
expo-
sure to the rays of the Sun, especially for
the purpose of killing pests in the soil, by
covering the soil with plastic sheets and let-
ting it warm up in the sunshine
solar solar panel panel noun a device with a dark
surface which absorbs the sun’s radiation
and uses it to heat water. Also called solar
collector, collector panel
solar solar power power noun same as solar energy
solar-powered solar-powered adjective powered by
energy derived from the Sun’s rays ć a so-
lar-powered steam pump
solid solid adjective not liquid or gaseous ć a
lump of solid matter ć a solid object ć Vis-
ibility is reduced by the presence of solid
particles such as dust or sand in the atmos-
phere.
solidification
198
solidification solidification noun the process of becoming solid solidify solidify verb to become solid ć Carbon dioxide solidifies at low temperatures.
solid solid waste waste noun a type of waste matter that is hard and not liquid solifluction solifluction noun a gradual downhill movement of wet soil solstice solstice noun one of the two times of year when the Sun is at its furthest point, either north or south, from the equator solubility solubility noun the ability of a substance to dissolve in another substance or solvent at a given temperature and pressure soluble soluble adjective referring to a substance that can be dissolved ć fat-soluble ć water-soluble
solum solum noun soil, including both topsoil and subsoil solute solute noun a solid substance which is dissolved in a solvent to make a solution solution solution noun 1. the act or means of solving a problem or difficulty ć The solution was to protect the plants from trampling. 2. the answer to or a way of removing a problem or difficulty ć found a solution 3. a change of a solid or gas into a liquid by dissolving in water or some other liquid 4. a mixture of a solid substance dissolved in a liquid ć a dilute solution of sodium bicarbonate solvent solvent noun a liquid in which a solid substance can be dissolved SOM SOM abbr soil organic matter sonar sonar noun a method of finding objects under water by sending out sound waves and detecting returning sound waves reflected by the object sonde sonde noun a device attached to a balloon or rocket, for measuring and taking samples of the atmosphere sonic sonic adjective referring to sound waves soot soot noun a black deposit of fine particles of carbon which rise in the smoke produced by the burning of material such as coal, wood or oil sorghum sorghum noun a drought-resistant cereal plant grown in semi-arid tropical regions such as Mexico, Nigeria and Sudan. Latin name: Sorghum vulgare. sound sound noun something that can be heard and is caused by vibration of the surrounding air sound sound insulation insulation noun preventing sound escaping or entering source source noun 1. a substance or object which produces something ć Hot rocks are
a potential energy source. ć Plants tend to
turn towards a light source. 2. the place
where a river starts to flow ć The source of
the Nile is in the mountains of Ethiopia.
southern southern hemisphere hemisphere noun the lower
half of the Earth
Southern Southern Lights Lights plural noun a spectac-
ular illumination of the sky in the southern
hemisphere caused by ionised particles
striking the atmosphere. Also called Auro-
ra Australis
sow sow verb to put seeds into soil so that they
will germinate and grow
soya soya noun a plant that produces edible
beans which have a high protein and fat
content and very little starch. Latin name:
Glycine max. Also called soya bean, soy-
bean
soya soya bean bean, soybean noun 1. a bean from
a soya plant 2. same as soya
sp. sp. abbr species (NOTE: The plural, for sev-
eral species, is spp.)
sparse sparse adjective having only a small
number of items or individuals in a specific
area ć a few sparse bushes in the desert ć
a sparse population
spate spate noun ˽ in (full) spate very full of
water and overflowing its banks ć The riv-
er was in full spate.
spathe spathe noun a large funnel-shaped bract,
often coloured, around a flower head
spawn spawn noun a mass of eggs produced by
a fish or reptile ć Frog spawn develops into
tadpoles. í verb (of a fish or reptile) to pro-
duce a mass of eggs
SPEC SPEC abbr Species of European Conser-
vation Concern
Special Area of Conservation Special Area of Conservation
noun
a site designated to meet the requirements
of the Habitats and Species Directive of the
European Union. Abbr SAC
specialisation specialisation
,
specialization
noun
1.
the activity of being concerned with one
particular area of knowledge in detail 2. a
particular area of knowledge
specialise specialise
,
specialize
verb
to
be
con-
cerned with one particular area of knowl-
edge in detail ć She specialises in the study
of conifers.
specialist specialist noun 1. a person who special-
ises in a particular area of knowledge ć
They have called in a contamination spe-
cialist. 2. an organism which only lives on
one type of food or in a very restricted hab-
itat
specialist specialist species species noun a species
which only lives on one type of food or in a
very restricted habitat
199
spoilage
speciality speciality noun a particular area of
knowledge that a person is concerned with
in detail
special protection area special protection area
noun an area
designated under the Birds directive for the
conservation of wild birds
specialty specialty noun US same as speciality
speciation speciation noun the process of develop-
ing new species
species species noun a group of organisms that
can interbreed. A species is a division of a
genus. Abbr sp. (NOTE: The plural is spe-
cies.)
Species Species Action Plan Action Plan noun a scheme
aimed at protecting species that are at risk
by collecting all the available ecological
data and listing appropriate conservation
actions
species species barrier barrier noun the inability of
members of different species to produce
healthy offspring if they mate or cross
species species diversity diversity noun the range of
species found in an area
species of conservation concern species of conservation concern
noun a species that is in decline, rare or
scarce in the wild. Abbr SoCC
species of European concern species of European concern
noun
a species that is in decline, rare or scarce in
Europe. Abbr SPEC
species species pool pool noun the group of all
members of a species
species species richness richness noun the number of
species found in an area
species richness map species richness map
noun a map
showing the distribution of species in an
area
specific specific adjective 1. clearly defined and
definite ć The plants have specific require-
ments for growth. 2. characteristic of some-
thing 3. referring to species. ı interspecif-
ic, intraspecific
specificity specificity noun the characteristic of
having a specific range or use ć Parasites
show specificity in that they live on only a
limited number of hosts.
specific specific name name noun the scientific name
by which a species is differentiated from
other members of the genus (NOTE: It is the
second name in the binomial classification
system, the first being the name which
identifies the genus. It is written with a
small letter.)
specimen specimen noun 1. a representative of a
group, especially an animal or plant ć a
rare double-flowered specimen 2. a small
quantity of something given for testing ć
Scientists have taken away soil specimens for analysis. spectrography spectrography noun the recording of a spectrum on photographic film spectroscope spectroscope noun an instrument used to analyse a spectrum spent spent fuel fuel noun fuel which has been used in a nuclear reactor but which is still fissile and can be reprocessed ć Tonnes of spent fuel are sent for reprocessing. spent spent nuclear fuel nuclear fuel noun radioactive material that has undergone one year of decay since being taken from a nuclear reactor but has not been separated into its components by reprocessing. Abbr SNF sperm sperm noun same as spermatozoon (NOTE: The plural is sperm.)
spermatogenesis spermatogenesis noun the formation and development of spermatozoa spermatophyte spermatophyte noun a seed-producing plant such as an angiosperm or a gymnosperm spermatozoon spermatozoon noun a mature male sex cell, which is capable of fertilising an ovum
(NOTE: The plural is spermatozoa.)
sperm sperm whale whale noun a large toothed whale with a massive head inside which is a cavity containing sperm oil for which it was formerly hunted sphagnum sphagnum noun a type of moss which grows in bogs spider spider noun one of a large group of animals, with two parts to their bodies and eight legs. Class: Arachnida. spike spike noun a tall pointed flower head (inflorescence) in which small flowers without stalks grow from a central flower stem spill spill noun a quantity of liquid which has escaped from a container or confined area spillage spillage noun 1. the process of escaping from a container or confined area ć spillage of the river onto the adjacent land 2. a quantity of liquid which has escaped from a container or confined area spillway spillway noun a channel down which water can overflow from the reservoir behind a dam spirochaete spirochaete noun a bacterium with a spiral shape spit spit noun a long, narrow accumulation of sand or gravel that projects from the shore into the sea spoil spoil noun waste left after minerals have been dug out of the ground spoilage spoilage noun the process of food becoming inedible, especially because of poor storage conditions
spoil heap
200
spoil spoil heap heap noun a large pile of waste left after minerals have been dug out of the ground sporangium sporangium noun the organ that produces spores in some fungi, ferns and some other non-flowering plants (NOTE: The plu-
ral is sporangia.)
spore spore noun the microscopic reproductive body of fungi, bacteria and some non-flowering plants such as ferns sporicidal sporicidal adjective able to kill spores sporicide sporicide noun a substance that kills spores sporophyll sporophyll noun a leaf with spore-producing organs, e.g. the fertile frond of a fern sporophyte sporophyte noun the spore-producing non-sexual phase in the life cycle of some plants such as ferns sporozoon sporozoon plural noun a parasitic protozoan, e.g. Plasmodium, the cause of malaria (NOTE: The plural is sporozoa.) sports sports utility vehicle utility vehicle, sport utility vehicle noun a large strongly built car designed to carry people and equipment in rough countryside but usually used for everyday driving. Abbr SUV (NOTE: There are
environmental concerns about the poor fuel economy of such cars.)
SPOT SPOT abbr Système Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre sprawl sprawl noun an area that has been built up in a disorderly way ć urban sprawl í verb to spread out in a disorderly way spray spray noun 1. a mass of tiny drops of liquid 2. special liquid for spraying onto a plant to prevent insect infestation or disease í verb 1. to send out a liquid in a mass of tiny drops ć They sprayed the plants with water at regular intervals. 2. to send out a special liquid onto a plant to prevent insect infestation or disease ć Apple trees are sprayed twice a year to kill aphids. sprayer sprayer noun a machine which forces a liquid through a nozzle under pressure, used to distribute liquids such as herbicides, fungicides, insecticides and fertilisers spread spread verb 1. to move out over a large area ć The locusts spread right across the country. ć Invasive plants spread rapidly. 2. to put something such as manure, fertiliser or mulch on an area of ground spring spring noun 1. a place where water comes naturally out of the ground 2. the season of the year following winter and before summer, when days become longer and the weather progressively warmer
spring spring tide tide noun a tide which occurs at
the new and full moon when the influence
of the Sun and Moon act together and the
difference between high and low water is
more than normal. Compare neap tide
springwood springwood noun wood that develops
just below the bark of trees in spring. Com-
pare summerwood
sprout sprout noun a little shoot growing out
from a plant, with a stem and small leaves
í verb (of a plant) to send out new growth
spruce spruce noun a temperate softwood conif-
erous tree. Genus: Picea.
spur spur noun 1. a ridge of land that descends
towards a valley floor from higher land
above 2. a tubular projection from a flower
sepal or petal often containing nectar 3. a
short leafy branch of a tree with a cluster of
flowers or fruits
squall squall noun a sharp gust of wind
squally squally adjective (of weather ) with sharp
gusts of wind
Sr Sr symbol strontium
SSSI SSSI abbr Site of Special Scientific Inter-
est
stabilisation stabilisation lagoon lagoon noun 1. a pond
used for storing liquid waste 2. a pond used
for purifying sewage by allowing sunlight
to fall on a mixture of sewage and water
stabilisation stabilisation pond pond noun same as sew-
age lagoon
stabilise stabilise
,
stabilize
verb
1.
to
become
steady and not change, or to make some-
thing remain without change 2. to take
measures to prevent soil being eroded, es-
pecially from a hillside
stabiliser stabiliser
,
stabilizer
noun
1.
an
artificial
substance added to processed food such as
sauces containing water and fat to stop the
mixture from changing (NOTE: In the EU,
emulsifiers and stabilisers have E numbers
E322 to E495.) 2. an artificial substance
added to plastics to prevent degradation
stabilising stabilising agent agent noun same as stabi-
liser
stability stability noun the state of being stable
and not changing
stable stable adjective 1. steady and not easily
moved ć a stable surface 2. not changing ć
In parts of Southeast Asia, temperatures re-
main stable for most of the year. 3. referring
to a chemical compound that does not react
readily with other chemicals
stable stable climax climax noun a community of
plants and animals in equilibrium with its
environment, the final stage of an ecologi-
cal succession
201
steno-
stable stable population population noun a population which remains at a constant level because births and deaths are equal
stack stack noun 1. a very tall industrial chimney, usually containing several flues ć The use of high stacks in power stations means that pollution is now more widely spread. 2. a steep-sided pillar of rock which stands in the sea near a cliff 3. a large neat pile of things ć a stack of boxes í verb to place things in a neat pile one on top of the other
stain stain noun 1. a coloured mark on a surface 2. a substance used to increase contrast in the colour of something such as a piece of tissue or a bacterial sample before examining it under a microscope í verb to treat something such as a piece of tissue or a bacterial sample with a dye so as to increase contrast in the colour before examining it under a microscope
stakeholder stakeholder noun a person who has an interest in seeing that something does or does not happen, e.g. a shareholder in a business, an employee or a supplier
stalactite stalactite noun a long pointed growth of mineral from the ceiling of a cave, formed by the constant dripping of water which is rich in minerals
stalagmite stalagmite noun a long pointed growth of mineral upwards from the floor of a cave, formed by the constant dripping of water which is rich in minerals from the tip of a stalactite
stalk stalk noun 1. the main stem of a plant which holds the plant upright 2. a subsidiary stem of a plant, branching out from the main stem or attaching a leaf, flower or fruit
stamen stamen noun a male part of a flower consisting of a stalk (filament) bearing a container (anther) in which pollen is produced
stand stand noun a group of plants or trees growing together ć a stand of conifers
standard standard noun 1. something which has been agreed on and is used to measure other things by ć set higher standards for water purity 2. a plant grown on a single long stem that is kept from forming branches except at the top 3. a large tree in a woodland ć a coppice with standards
standing standing crop crop noun 1. a crop such as wheat which is still growing in a field 2. the numbers and weight of the living vegetation of an area, calculated by weighing the vegetation growing in a sample section
staphylococcal staphylococcal adjective caused by staphylococci
staphylococcus staphylococcus noun a bacterium that causes boils and food poisoning. Genus: Staphylococcus. (NOTE: The plural is sta-
phylococci.)
staple staple commodity commodity noun a basic food or raw material starch starch noun a substance composed of chains of glucose units, found in green plants (NOTE: It is the usual form in which
carbohydrates exist in food, especially in bread, rice and potatoes, and is broken
down by the digestive process into forms of sugar.)
starchy starchy adjective containing a lot of starch ć Potatoes are a starchy food. starfish starfish noun one of a group of flat sea animals that have five arms branching from a central body starvation starvation noun the state of having very little or no food starve starve verb to have little or no food or nourishment stasis stasis noun a state when there is no change, growth or movement static static adjective not changing, moving or growing station station noun a building used for a particular purpose, e.g. a research station or railway station statistics statistics plural noun figures relating to measurements taken from samples ć Population statistics show that the birth rate is slowing down. stator stator noun a fixed part of a rotary machine ć The low pressure compressor has large rotor blades and stator blades. steady steady state state noun a situation where the input, output and properties of a system remain constant over time steam steam noun vapour that comes off boiling water and condenses in the atmosphere stearic stearic acid acid noun a colourless insoluble fatty acid found in animal and vegetable fats. It is used for making candles and soap. Formula: C18H36O3. steel steel noun an alloy mainly of iron and carbon steelworks steelworks noun a factory where steel is produced from iron ore stele stele noun the core of roots and stems, consisting of vascular tissue arranged in different patterns in different types of plant stem stem noun 1. the main stalk of a plant that holds it upright 2. a subsidiary plant stalk, branching out from the main stalk or attaching a leaf, flower or fruit steno- steno- prefix narrow or constricted
stenohaline
202
stenohaline stenohaline adjective 1. referring to an
organism that cannot tolerate variations in
salt concentration in its environment 2. re-
ferring to an organism that cannot survive
variations in osmotic pressure of soil water
̈ compare euryhaline
stenothermous stenothermous adjective referring to
an organism that cannot tolerate changes of
temperature. Compare eurythermous
steppe steppe noun a wide grassy plain with no
trees, especially in Europe and Asia (NOTE:
The North American equivalent of a steppe
is a prairie.)
sterile sterile adjective 1. free from microorgan-
isms 2. infertile or not able to produce off-
spring
sterilisation sterilisation
,
sterilization
noun
1.
the
action of making something free from mi-
croorganisms 2. the action of making an or-
ganism unable to produce offspring
sterilise sterilise
,
sterilize
verb
1.
to
make
some-
thing sterile by killing the microorganisms
in it or on it ć The soil needs to be sterilised
before being used for intensive greenhouse
cultivation. 2. to make an organism unable
to have offspring (NOTE: This may be done
by various means including drugs, surgery
or irradiation.)
sterility sterility noun 1. the state of being free
from microorganisms 2. the inability to
produce offspring
Stevenson Stevenson screen screen noun a shelter that
contains meteorological instruments, ar-
ranged to give standard readings
stewardship stewardship noun the protection of the
environment for the future benefit of gener-
ations of human beings by developing ap-
propriate institutions and strategies
stigma stigma noun the part of a flower’s female
reproductive organ that receives the pollen
grains (NOTE: It is generally located at the
tip of the style.)
stimulate stimulate verb to make an organism or
organ react or respond
stimulus stimulus noun something that makes an
organism or organ react or respond, e.g.
light, heat or noise (NOTE: The plural is
stimuli.)
sting sting noun 1. an organ with a sharp point,
used by an insect or scorpion to pierce the
skin of its victim and inject a toxic sub-
stance into the victim’s bloodstream 2. the
action of using a sting 3. a raised area on
the skin produced by a sting 4. a small itchy
lump that is the result of touching a plant
such a nettle that irritates the skin í verb 1.
(of an insect or scorpion) to use a sting to
pierce a victim ć Do not touch the scorpion
or it will sting you. 2. (of a plant) to produce a small itchy lump on somebody’s skin
stinger stinger noun a plant such as a nettle that irritates the skin
stock stock noun 1. animals or plants that are derived from a common ancestor 2. a plant with roots onto which a piece of another plant, the scion, is grafted. ı rootstock 3. a supply of something available for future use ć Stocks of herring are being decimated by overfishing. í verb to provide a supply of something for future use ć a wellstocked garden ć We stocked the ponds with a rare breed of fish.
stockpile stockpile noun a large supply of something held for future use
stolon stolon noun 1. a stem that grows along the ground and gives rise to a new plant when it roots 2. a structure found in some simple animals, sometimes used to anchor an organism to a surface
stoma stoma noun a pore in a plant, especially in the leaves, through which carbon dioxide is taken in and oxygen is sent out. Each stoma in a leaf is surrounded by a pair of guard cells, which close the stomata if the plant needs to conserve water. (NOTE: The plural
is stomata.)
stone stone noun 1. a single small piece of rock 2. a mineral formation 3. a hard endocarp that surrounds a seed in a fruit such as a cherry
stoneground stoneground adjective referring to flour which has been made by grinding between flat heavy stones
stony stony adjective with many stones
storage storage noun the act of keeping something until it is needed
storage storage organ organ noun a plant part that stores food from the previous growing season and allows the plant to survive without leaves over winter, e.g. a potato tuber or a daffodil bulb
storage storage tank tank noun a large tank for storing a liquid
store store verb to keep something until it is needed ć Whales store energy as blubber under the skin.
storm storm noun a period of violent weather, with wind and rain or snow ć There was a storm during the night. ć Storms swept the northern region. ı Beaufort scale
storm storm cloud cloud noun a dark-coloured cloud in which vigorous activity produces heavy rain or snow and sometimes other pronounced meteorological effects such as squalls of wind
203
structure
storm storm drain drain noun a specially wide channel for taking away large amounts of rainwater which fall during heavy storms
storm storm sewage sewage noun sewage mixed with storm water after a heavy rainfall
storm storm sewer sewer noun a specially large pipe for taking away large amounts of rainwater
storm storm surge surge noun a rise in sea level as a hurricane or other severe storm moves over water, causing flooding when the storm comes ashore
storm storm swell swell noun a long, often massive and wave or succession of waves without crests caused by a hurricane
storm storm water water noun water that falls as rain during a storm
straight straight fertiliser fertiliser noun a fertiliser that supplies only one nutrient such as nitrogen. Compare compound fertiliser
strain strain noun a group within a species with distinct characteristics ć They have developed a new strain of virus-resistant rice.
strait strait noun a narrow passage of sea between two larger areas of sea
strata strata plural of stratum
strategic environmental assess- strategic environmental assessment ment noun an official assessment of the environmental effect of policies, plans and projects. ı environmental impact assess-
ment
stratification stratification noun the formation of several layers in substances such as sedimentary rocks, or water in a lake or air in the atmosphere
stratified stratified adjective formed of several layers
stratigraphy stratigraphy noun the science of studying rock strata
stratocumulus stratocumulus noun a layer of small cumulus clouds below 3000 m
stratopause stratopause noun a thin layer of the Earth’s atmosphere between the stratosphere and the mesosphere
stratosphere stratosphere noun a layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, above the troposphere and the tropopause and separated from the mesosphere by the stratopause
COMMENT: The stratosphere rises from about 18 km to 50 km above the surface of the Earth. It is formed of nitrogen (80%), oxygen (18%), ozone, argon and trace gases. The ozone in it forms the ozone layer.
stratospheric stratospheric adjective referring to the stratosphere ć CFCs are responsible for damage to the ozone in the Earth’s stratospheric zone.
stratum stratum noun a layer of rock (NOTE: The
plural is strata.)
stratus stratus noun a type of grey cloud, often producing light rain
straw straw noun 1. the dry stems and leaves of crops such as wheat and oilseed rape left after the grains have been removed 2. grass which is mowed after flowering. Compare
hay
stream stream noun a narrow and shallow river
stream stream erosion erosion noun the wearing away of soil or rock by the effect of a stream of water
streamflow streamflow noun the amount and speed of water flowing in a stream
stress stress noun a condition where an outside influence changes the composition or functioning of something ć Plants in dry environments experience stress due to lack of water. í verb to subject something to stress
stress-tolerant stress-tolerant adjective referring to a plant which can survive some degree of stress
striation striation noun 1. a pattern of parallel lines or grooves 2. a narrow groove or scratch on rock, caused by the action of a glacier
strip strip noun a long narrow piece, usually of the same width from end to end ć a strip of paper ć a strip of land í verb to remove a covering from something ć Spraying with defoliant strips the leaves off all plants.
strip strip cropping cropping noun a method of farming in which long thin pieces of land across the contours are planted with different crops in order to reduce soil erosion
strip strip cultivation cultivation noun a method of communal farming in which each family has a long thin piece or several long thin pieces of land to cultivate
strip strip mining mining noun a form of mining where the mineral is dug from the surface instead of digging underground. ı open-
cast mining
strontium strontium noun a radioactive metallic element (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Sr;
the atomic number is 38 and the atomic weight is 87.62.)
structural structural adjective referring to the structure of something ć The structural limitations must never be exceeded.
structure structure noun 1. something that has been constructed ć a glass and steel structure 2. the different parts that make up a whole, or the arrangement of parts ć the structure of DNA
stubble
204
stubble stubble noun the short stems left in the ground after a crop such as wheat or oilseed rape has been cut stunt stunt verb to reduce the growth of something ć The poor soil stunts the growth of the trees. style style noun the elongated structure that carries the stigma at its tip in many flowers sub- sub- prefix less important than subatomic subatomic particle particle noun same as ele-
mentary particle
subclass subclass noun a division of a class in the scientific classification of organisms subclimax subclimax noun a stage in the development of a plant community where development stops before reaching its final stable state or climax subcontinent subcontinent noun a very large land mass, that is a distinct part of a continent ć the Indian subcontinent subculture subculture noun a culture of microorganisms or cells that is grown from another culture í verb to grow a culture of microorganisms or cells from another culture subdivision subdivision noun a group within a division in the scientific classification of organisms subdominant subdominant adjective referring to a species that is not as important as the dominant species subduct subduct verb to pull something underneath ć The oceanic crust is being subducted under the continents which surround it. subduction subduction noun the process by which a tectonic plate such as the oceanic crust is slowly being pulled under another plate subgroup subgroup noun a small group distinguished in some way from the larger group to which it belongs sublimate sublimate verb to transform directly from the solid to the gaseous state or from the gaseous to the solid state without becoming a liquid ć At low temperatures water vapour is directly sublimated into ice crystals. sublime sublime verb same as sublimate sublittoral sublittoral adjective further inland from a shore than the littoral zone submarine submarine adjective situated or existing beneath the sea ć Shellfish collect round warm submarine vents. submerge submerge verb to cover something with water or to become covered with water ć The coast is dangerous, with rocks submerged at intervals along it. submicroscopic submicroscopic adjective too small to be seen with a light microscope
sub-Saharan sub-Saharan noun referring to the area south of the Sahara ć Rural supplies of wood for fuel are falling in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa. subsere subsere noun the development of a plant and animal community after destruction of an existing community by fire, flood or human action subside subside verb 1. to go down or to become less violent ć After the rainstorms passed, the flood waters gradually subsided. 2. to sink or fall to a lower level ć The office block is subsiding owing to the shrinkage of the clay it is built on. subsidence subsidence noun 1. (of a piece of ground or a building) the process of sinking or falling to a lower level ć Subsidence caused by the old mine shaft closed the main road. 2. a gradual downward movement of a mass of air subsidy subsidy noun money given by a government or organisation to help an industry, charity or other organisation ć The reform will result in subsidies for farming being replaced by payments for caring for the environment. subsistence subsistence noun the condition of managing to live on the smallest amount of resources including food needed to stay alive subsistence subsistence farming farming noun the activity of growing just enough crops to feed the farmer’s family and having none left to sell subsoil subsoil noun a layer of soil under the topsoil (NOTE: The subsoil contains little or-
ganic matter but chemical substances from
the topsoil leach into it.)
subspecies subspecies noun a group of organisms that is part of a species but which shows slight differences from the main group, with which it can still interbreed substance substance noun material of a particular type ć a sticky substance ć a harmful substance ć toxic substances substitute substitute noun a thing used in place of another í verb to replace one thing with another ć Farmers have been told to plough up pastureland and substitute woodlots. substitution substitution noun the replacement of one thing by another ć the substitution of natural fibres by synthetic materials substitution substitution effect effect noun the effect on the environment of substituting one form of action for another substrate substrate noun 1. a substance that is acted on by a catalyst such as an enzyme 2. the matter or surface on which an organism lives
205
supercell
substratum substratum noun a layer of rock beneath
the topsoil and subsoil (NOTE: The plural is
substrata.)
subterranean subterranean adjective below the
ground
subtropical subtropical adjective referring to the
subtropics ć The islands enjoy a subtropi-
cal climate. ć Subtropical plants grow on
the sheltered parts of the coast.
subtropics subtropics plural noun an area between
the tropics and the temperate zone
suburb suburb noun a residential part of a town,
away from the centre, but still within the
built-up area
suburban suburban adjective referring to the sub-
urbs
succession succession noun a series of stages, one
after the other, by which a group of organ-
isms living in a community reaches its final
stable state or climax
successive successive adjective referring to events
or things following on one after another
succulent succulent noun a plant that has fleshy
leaves or stems in which it stores water, e.g.
a cactus
sudden sudden oak death oak death noun a serious dis-
ease caused by the fungus Phytophthora
ramorum that affects many tree species
(NOTE: It has killed various species of oak in
the US states of California and Oregon, but
European species of oak appear to be less
at risk.)
sufficiency sufficiency noun a large enough amount
of something
suffrutescent suffrutescent
,
suffruticose
adjective
referring to a perennial plant that is woody
at the base of the stem and does not die
down to ground level in winter
sugar sugar noun any chemical of the saccha-
ride group
sulfate sulfate noun a salt of sulfuric acid and a
metal
sulfide sulfide
,
sulphide
noun
an
ion
of
sulfur
present in chemical compounds and miner-
al ores
sulfite sulfite
,
sulphite
noun
a
salt
of
sulfuric
acid that forms part of several chemical
compounds and is used in processing paper
sulfonation sulfonation
,
sulphonation
noun
the
in-
corporation of sulfonic acid into an organic
substance
sulfonator sulfonator
,
sulphonator
noun
an
appa-
ratus for adding sulfur dioxide to water to
remove excess chlorine
sulfur sulfur
,
sulphur
noun
a
yellow
non-metal-
lic chemical element that is essential to bi-
ological life. It is used in the manufacture
of sulfuric acid and in the vulcanisation of rubber. (NOTE: The chemical symbol is S; the atomic number is 16 and the atomic weight is 32.06. The usual and recommended scientific spelling of sulphur and derivatives such as sulphate, sulphide and sulphonate is with an -f-, though the spelling with -ph- is still common in general usage.)
COMMENT: In the United Kingdom, the removal of sulfur from the atmosphere means that some crops such as oilseed rape are deficient and sulfur needs to be added to fertilisers.
sulfur sulfur cycle cycle, sulphur cycle noun the process by which sulfur flows from the environment, through organisms and back to the environment again
sullage sullage noun 1. mud brought down by mountain streams 2. the liquid waste from a building
summer summer noun the season following spring and before autumn, when the weather is warmest, the Sun is highest in the sky and most plants flower and set seed í verb to spend the summer in a place ć The birds summer on the shores of the lake.
summerwood summerwood noun dense wood formed by trees during the later part of the growing season. Compare springwood
summit summit noun 1. the highest point of a hill or mountain ć The climber reached the summit of the mountain. 2. a meeting between heads of government. ı Earth Sum-
mit
sun sun noun sunlight or the rays of the Sun ć sitting in the sun
Sun Sun noun a very hot star round which the Earth and other planets orbit and which gives energy in the form of light and heat
sunburn sunburn noun damage to the skin by excessive exposure to sunlight
sunlight sunlight noun the light from the Sun
sunrise sunrise noun the time when the Sun appears above the eastern horizon sunset sunset noun the time when the Sun disappears below the western horizon
sunshine sunshine noun bright light from the Sun
sunspot sunspot noun a darker patch on the surface of the Sun, caused by a stream of gas shooting outwards
super- super- prefix more than
superbug superbug noun a bacterium that is resistant to most antibiotics that could be used to treat it
supercell supercell noun the centre of a very large tornado or thunderstorm
supercool
206
supercool supercool verb to reduce the temperature
of a substance below its usual freezing
point without freezing actually occurring
superficial superficial adjective referring to features
on or near the surface ć superficial
scratches
superheated superheated adjective referring to
steam that is heated to a high temperature in
a power station
superinsulate superinsulate verb to equip a building
with completely effective insulation
superorder superorder noun one of the groups in the
scientific classification of organisms, rank-
ing next above order
superorganism superorganism noun a group or com-
munity of individual organisms that func-
tions as a single unit (NOTE: A forest, a ter-
mite colony and even human society can all
be viewed as superorganisms.)
superphosphate superphosphate noun a chemical com-
pound formed from calcium phosphate and
sulfuric acid, used as a fertiliser
supersaturated supersaturated adjective referring to
air which contains more moisture than the
amount required to saturate it
superweed superweed noun a weed resistant to her-
bicides that might develop in future as hy-
brid of a weed and a genetically modified
plant
supply supply noun 1. the provision of some-
thing that is needed ć safeguard the gener-
ation and supply of power 2. a stock of
something that is needed ć a year’s supply
of food
suppor support t verb to provide what is necessary
for an activity or way of life ć These wet-
lands support a natural community of
plants, animals and birds.
supra- supra- prefix above or over
surface surface noun 1. the outer covering or top
layer of something 2. the land, water or sea
of Earth’s surface
surface-active surface-active agent agent noun same as
surfactant
surface air temperature surface air temperature
noun the
temperature recorded in the shade at a
height just above ground level
surface surface area area noun the total of all the out-
er surfaces of an object ć a surface area of
10 square metres
surface surface drainage drainage noun the removal of
surplus water from an area of land by
means of ditches and channels
surface surface evaporation evaporation noun the evapo-
ration of water from the surface of a body
of water
surface surface heating heating noun the heating of the
ground by the Sun
surface surface runoff runoff noun a flow of rainwater, melted snow or excess fertiliser from the surface of land into streams and rivers surface surface soil soil noun same as topsoil surface surface water water noun water that flows across the surface of the soil as a stream after rain and drains into rivers rather than seeping into the soil itself. Compare
ground water
surfactant surfactant noun a substance that reduces surface tension. Also called surface-active
agent
surge surge noun a sudden increase in the flow of something such as water or electrical power surplus surplus adjective excess ć Surplus water will flow away in storm drains. í noun something that is more than is needed ć produced a surplus of wheat surplus surplus yield yield noun a yield which is more than necessary for a population survey survey noun 1. an investigation or inspection of something ć a survey of garden birds ć a survey of people’s views on smoking in public places 2. the taking of measurements of the height of buildings or mountains and the length of roads, rivers and other features in order to make a detailed plan or map 3. a document, plan or map showing the results of an investigation or of the measurements taken í verb 1. to investigate or inspect something 2. to ask people for their opinion of something survival survival noun the situation of continuing to live, especially if conditions are difficult survive survive verb 1. to continue to live in a difficult situation ć After the fire, only a few trees survived. 2. to overcome a difficult situation ć The plants can survive even the hottest desert temperatures. survivor survivor noun an individual that continues to live when others have died survivorship survivorship noun the number of individuals of a population surviving at a specific time suspend suspend verb 1. to hang something from above ć The bird-feeder was suspended from a tree. 2. to hold particles in a liquid or in air ć an aerosol of suspended particles suspension suspension noun 1. the state of being suspended 2. a liquid with solid particles in it, not settling to the bottom nor floating on the surface ˽ in suspension held in a liquid, not floating or settling sustain sustain verb to provide the necessary conditions for something ć The land is fertile enough to sustain a wide variety of fauna and flora.
207
synfuel
sustainability sustainability noun the ability of a proc-
ess or human activity to meet present needs
but maintain natural resources and leave
the environment in good order for future
generations
sustainable sustainable adjective referring to an ac-
tivity that does not deplete or damage natu-
ral resources ć hardwood from a sustaina-
ble source
sustainable agriculture sustainable agriculture
noun envi-
ronmentally friendly methods of farming
that allow the production of crops or live-
stock without damage to the ecosystem
sustainable development sustainable development
noun de-
velopment that balances the satisfaction of
people’s immediate interests and the pro-
tection of future generations’ interests
sustainable sustainable energy energy noun energy pro-
duced from renewable resources that does
not deplete natural resources
sustainable sustainable existence existence noun a way of
life that ensures that the resources of the ec-
osystem are not depleted
Sustainable Farming and Food Sustainable Farming and Food Strategy
Strategy noun a strategy produced by De-
fra to support farming and food industries
in working towards practices that will lead
to a better environment and healthy and
prosperous communities
sustainable sustainable society society noun a society
which exists without depleting the natural
resources of its habitat
sustainable sustainable tourism tourism noun the manage-
ment of tourist activities to ensure mini-
mum disruption of local infrastructure and
environment
sustainable sustainable yield yield noun the greatest
productivity that can be derived from a re-
newable resource without depleting the
supply in a specific area
SUV SUV abbr sport(s) utility vehicle
Sv Sv symbol sievert
swallow swallow hole hole noun a hole that forms in
limestone rock as rainwater drains through
it, dissolving minerals in the rock and
sometimes forming underground caverns
swamp swamp noun an area of permanently wet
land and the plants that grow on it
swampland swampland noun an area of land cov-
ered with swamp
swampy swampy adjective referring to land that is
permanently wet
swarm swarm noun a large number of insects
such as bees or locusts flying as a group í
verb (of insects) to fly in a large group
swash swash noun a rush of water up a beach
from a breaking wave. Compare backwash
swidden swidden farming farming noun same as slash
and burn agriculture
swollen swollen adjective 1. increased in size ć A
tuber is a swollen underground stem. 2.
containing more water than usual ć swol-
len rivers or streams
sycamore sycamore noun a large hardwood tree of
the maple family. Latin name: Acer pseu-
doplatanus.
symbiont symbiont noun one of the set of organ-
isms living in symbiosis with each other.
Compare commensal
symbiosis symbiosis noun a condition where two
or more unrelated organisms exist together
enabling both to survive. Also called mutu-
alism
symbiotic symbiotic adjective referring to symbio-
sis ć The rainforest has evolved symbiotic
mechanisms to recycle minerals.
symbiotically symbiotically adverb in symbiosis ć
Colonies of shellfish have parasites that
live symbiotically with them.
symbiotic relationship symbiotic relationship
noun a rela-
tionship of cooperation between two or
more unrelated organisms
sympatric sympatric speciation speciation noun the devel-
opment of new species in the same areas as
other new species
symphile symphile noun an insect or other organ-
ism that lives in the nests of social insects
such as ants or termites and is fed by them
symptom symptom noun a change in the function-
ing or appearance of an organism, which
shows that a disease or disorder is present
symptomatic symptomatic adjective referring to a
symptom
syn- syn- prefix joint or fused
syncline syncline noun a concave downward fold
of rock, with the youngest rock on the in-
side. Compare anticline
syndrome syndrome noun a group of symptoms
and other changes in an organism’s func-
tions which, when taken together, show that
a particular disease or disorder is present
synecology synecology noun the study of communi-
ties of organisms in their environments.
Compare autecology
synergism synergism noun a phenomenon where
two substances act more strongly together
than they would independently
synergist synergist noun a substance that increases
the effect of another
synfuel synfuel noun a fuel similar to those pro-
duced from crude oil but produced from
more plentiful resources, e.g. coal, shale or
tar
synroc
208
synroc synroc noun an artificial mineral com-
pound formed of nuclear waste fused into
minerals and so will never deteriorate
synthesis synthesis noun 1. the process of com-
bining things to form a whole 2. the process
of producing a compound by a chemical re-
action
synthesise synthesise
,
synthesize
verb
1.
to
com-
bine things to form a whole 2. to produce a
compound by a chemical reaction ć The
body cannot synthesise essential fatty acids
and has to absorb them from food.
synthetic synthetic adjective made in an industrial
process and not occurring naturally ć syn-
thetic rubber
synthetically synthetically adverb by an industrial
process ć synthetically produced hor-
mones
synusia synusia noun a group of plants living in
the same habitat
system system noun 1. an arrangement of things
or phenomena that act together ć a weather
system 2. an arrangement of parts of the
body that work together ć the nervous sys-
tem 3. a way of classifying something sci-
entifically ć the Linnaean system
systematic systematic adjective organised in a
planned way
systematics systematics noun the scientific study of systems, especially of the system of classifying organisms Système Système International International noun full form of SI Système Probatoire d’Observation Système Probatoire d’Observation de la Terre de la Terre noun a French observation satellite transmitting data which gives images of the Earth. Abbr SPOT systemic systemic adjective affecting a whole organism systemic systemic fungicide fungicide noun a fungicide that is absorbed into a plant’s sap system through its leaves or roots and protects the plant from infection by fungi without killing the plant itself. ı systemic pesticide systemic systemic herbicide herbicide noun a herbicide that is absorbed into a plant’s sap system through its leaves or roots and is transported through the plant to kill the roots. Also called systemic weedkiller systemic systemic pesticide pesticide noun a pesticide that is absorbed into a plant’s sap system through its leaves or roots and protects the plant from pests without killing the plant itself systemic systemic weedkiller weedkiller noun same as
systemic herbicide
T
TT symbol teraTa Ta symbol tantalum tableland tableland noun an area of high flat land TAC TAC abbr total allowable catch taiga taiga noun a forested region between the Arctic tundra and the steppe tailings tailings plural noun refuse or waste ore from mining operations tailpipe tailpipe noun US a tube at the back of a motor vehicle from which gases produced by burning petrol are sent out into the atmosphere (NOTE: British English is exhaust
pipe.)
tall-grass tall-grass prairie prairie noun same as long-
grass prairie
tank tank noun a large container for storing fluid ć water tank ć fuel tank tanker tanker noun 1. a large ship used to carry petrol or oil 2. a truck used to carry liquids such as petrol or milk tantalum tantalum noun a rare metal that does not corrode (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Ta;
the atomic number is 73 and the atomic
weight is 180.95.)
tap tap noun a pipe with a handle that can be turned to make a liquid or gas come out of a container í verb to remove or drain liquid from something ˽ to tap oil resources to bring up oil from the ground. ı untapped taproot taproot noun the thick main root of a plant which grows straight down into the soil (NOTE: A taproot system has a main
root with smaller roots branching off it, as opposed to a fibrous root system which has no main root.)
tap tap water water noun the water that has been supplied by pipes to a building and is sometimes stored in tanks before being used tar tar noun a thick black sticky substance derived from coal tardigrade tardigrade noun a tiny animal that lives in moss tarn tarn noun a small lake in a depression on a mountainside tar tar sand sand noun same as oil sand tartrazine tartrazine noun a yellow substance added to food to give it an attractive colour (NOTE:
It is coded E102. Although widely used, tartrazine provokes bad reactions in some people and is banned in some countries.)
taungya taungya
,
taungya
system
noun
a
system
used in the tropics in which food crops and
crops such as coffee that need shade are
grown below useful trees until the trees be-
come large
taxa taxa plural of taxon
-taxis -taxis suffix the response of an organism
moving towards or away from a stimulus
taxon taxon noun a grouping in a scientific clas-
sification of organisms, e.g. a family, genus
or species (NOTE: The plural is taxa.)
taxonomic taxonomic adjective referring to taxono-
my
taxonomy taxonomy noun the techniques and sys-
tem of classifying organisms according to
their characteristics
TBT TBT abbr tributyltin
TCDD TCDD noun a highly toxic persistent by-
product of the herbicide 2,4,5-T. Full form
tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin
TDI TDI abbr Tolerable Daily Intake
teak teak noun a tropical tree that produces a
hardwood which is resistant to water. Latin
name: Tectona grandis.
technical technical adjective referring to practical
or scientific work
technician technician noun a person who does prac-
tical work in a laboratory or scientific insti-
tution ć a laboratory technician
technique technique noun a way of doing some-
thing such as scientific or medical work us-
ing a special method or skill ć a new tech-
nique for dating fossils
technological technological adjective referring to
technology
technology technology noun the application of sci-
entific knowledge to industrial processes ć
The technology has to be related to user re-
quirements.
technosphere technosphere noun an environment
built or modified by humans
tectonic tectonic adjective referring to faults or
movements in the Earth’s crust
tectonic tectonic plate plate noun a large area of solid
rock in the Earth’s crust, which floats on
the mantle and moves very slowly
temperate temperate adjective neither very hot nor
very cold
temperate climate
210
temperate temperate climate climate noun a climate that is neither very hot in summer nor very cold in winter temperate temperate region region noun a region that is neither very hot in summer nor very cold in winter temperature temperature noun a measurement of heat temperature temperature chart chart noun a chart showing changes in temperature over a period of time temperature temperature lapse rate lapse rate noun same as
lapse rate
temporary temporary adjective lasting for a short time and not permanent tender tender adjective 1. soft or susceptible to damage 2. referring to a plant which cannot tolerate frost tendril tendril noun a stem, leaf or petiole of a plant modified into a thin touch-sensitive organ that coils around objects, providing support for climbing plants tera- tera- prefix one trillion, 1012. Symbol T teratogen teratogen noun a substance or agent that causes birth defects teratogenesis teratogenesis noun the production of birth defects teratogenic teratogenic adjective causing birth defects terawatt terawatt noun a unit of measurement of electric energy, equal to one billion watts. Abbr TW terminal terminal adjective coming at the end ć a terminal inflorescence ć terminal moraine
termitarium termitarium noun a nest made by termites formed in the shape of a hill of hard earth termite termite noun an insect resembling a large ant, which lives in colonies and eats cellulose tern tern noun a type of small gull terrace terrace noun a flat strip of land across a sloping hillside, lying level along the contours í verb to build terraces on a mountainside ć The hills are covered with terraced rice fields.
terrain terrain noun the ground or an area of land in terms of its physical surface features ć mountainous terrain
terrestrial terrestrial adjective 1. referring to the Earth, as opposed to space ć terrestrial and satellite links 2. referring to dry land, as opposed to the sea or the air ć terrestrial ecology ć terrestrial and marine sites
terrestrial terrestrial animal animal noun an animal that lives on dry land
terrestrial terrestrial equator equator noun same as equa-
tor
terricolous terricolous adjective referring to an ani-
mal that lives in or on soil
territorial territorial adjective referring to territory
territorialism territorialism
,
territoriality
noun
a
pat-
tern of behaviour involving the establish-
ment and defence of a territory
territorial territorial species species noun a species that
occupies and defends a territory
territorial territorial waters waters plural noun the sea
near the coast of a country that is under the
control of that country
territory territory noun an area of land occupied
and defended by an animal, which may be
all or part of the animal’s home range ć A
robin defends its territory by attacking oth-
er robins that enter it.
tertiary tertiary adjective coming after two other
things. ı primary, secondary
tertiary tertiary consumer consumer noun a carnivore
that only eats other carnivores. ı primary
consumer, secondary consumer
test test noun a process designed to find out if
a sample of something matches criteria, if a
device is working well, or if a product is
satisfactory ć Laboratory tests showed that
the sample was positive. ć Government of-
ficials have carried out tests on samples of
drinking water. í verb to examine a sample
or device to see if it is working well ć They
tested the water sample for microorgan-
isms.
tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin
noun
full form of TCDD
tetraethyl tetraethyl lead lead noun a substance some-
times added to petrol to prevent knocking
in an engine
texture texture noun the roughness or smooth-
ness of a surface or substance
Th Th symbol thorium
thatch thatch verb to cover a roof with reeds,
straw, grass or other plant material ć Reeds
provide the longest-lasting material for
thatching. í noun a covering for a roof
made of reeds, straw, grass or other plant
material ć birds nesting in the old thatch
thaw thaw noun a period when the weather be-
comes warmer after a heavy frost, and ice
and snow melt í verb to melt or make
something melt ć As the polar ice thaws,
the sea level rises. ć It is possible that ris-
ing atmospheric temperatures will thaw the
polar ice caps and raise the level of the sea.
thaw thaw water water noun water from melting
snow and ice
211
threaten
theodolite theodolite noun an instrument formed of
a telescope mounted in such a way that it
can turn around, used for measuring angles
theoretical theoretical adjective 1. about, involving
or based on theory 2. dealing with theory or
speculation rather than with practical appli-
cations 3. existing only as a theory
theoretically theoretically adverb possibly, on the ba-
sis of a theory
theorise theorise
,
theorize
verb
to
produce
ideas
to explain something
theory theory noun a possible explanation of
how or why something happens which has
not been confirmed by experimental evi-
dence
thermal thermal adjective referring to heat ć In-
tense surface heating causes thermal cur-
rents to develop and create convection.
thermal thermal accumulator accumulator noun same as
heat accumulator
thermal thermal discharge discharge noun same as heat
discharge
thermal thermal pollution pollution noun a change in the
quality of an environment by increasing its
temperature, e.g. the release of heat from
the cooling towers of a power station or
from the discharge of a coolant
thermal thermal power plant power plant noun an industri-
al site that produces energy from heat, es-
pecially by burning fossil fuels or using nu-
clear energy
thermal thermal storage storage noun same as heat
storage
thermo- thermo- prefix heat or temperature
thermocline thermocline noun same as metalimni-
on. ‘ epilimnion, hypolimnion
thermodynamic temperature thermodynamic temperature
noun
temperature measured on a scale that is in-
dependent of the substance being used, ex-
pressed in kelvin
thermograph thermograph noun an instrument that
records changes in temperature on a roll of
paper
thermolysis thermolysis noun a reduction in body
temperature, e.g. by sweating
thermometer thermometer noun an instrument for
measuring temperature
thermometry thermometry noun the science of meas-
uring temperature
thermonasty thermonasty noun a response of plants
to heat
thermoneutral thermoneutral zone zone noun a range of
environmental temperatures in which an
endotherm can easily maintain a constant
body temperature
thermonuclear thermonuclear energy energy noun energy
produced by fusion of atomic nuclei
thermoperiodic thermoperiodic adjective referring to
an organism that reacts to regular changes
in temperature
thermoperiodicity thermoperiodicity
,
thermoperiodism
noun the effect on an organism of regular
changes in temperature
thermophilic thermophilic adjective referring to or-
ganisms such as algae living in the hot wa-
ter of thermal springs that need a high tem-
perature to grow
thermoplastic thermoplastic adjective able to be recy-
cled by heating and cooling ć thermoplas-
tic materials
thermoregulation thermoregulation noun the control of
body temperature by processes such as
sweating and shivering
thermosphere thermosphere noun the zone of the at-
mosphere above 80km from the surface of
the Earth, where the temperature increases
with altitude
therophyte therophyte noun an annual plant that
completes its life cycle rapidly in favoura-
ble conditions, growing from a seed and
dying within one season and then surviving
the unfavourable season in the form of
seeds (NOTE: Many desert plants and plants
growing on cultivated land are thero-
phytes.)
Third Third World World noun the developing coun-
tries of Africa, Asia and Latin America
(NOTE: This term is now less-often used.)
thorium thorium noun a natural radioactive ele-
ment which decomposes to radioactive ra-
don gas (NOTE: The chemical symbol is Th;
the atomic number is 90 and the atomic
weight is 232.04.)
thorn thorn noun a sharp woody point on plant
stems or branches
thornbush thornbush noun a shrub or bush which
has sharp woody points on its stems and
branches
thorn thorn scrub scrub noun an area of land cov-
ered with bushes and small trees which
have sharp woody points on their stems and
branches
thorn thorn woodland woodland noun an area of land
covered with trees which have sharp woody
points on their stems and branches
threat threat noun something dangerous which
may cause harm or damage ć Water pollu-
tion is a threat to public health. ˽ under
threat (of) likely to be harmed or damaged
ć under threat of flooding
threaten threaten verb to be a danger or harmful to
something ć Plant species growing in arid
or semi-arid lands are threatened by the ex-
pansion in keeping livestock.
threatened
212
threatened threatened adjective in danger of being harmed, damaged, or reduced in numbers ć a threatened habitat threatened threatened species species noun a species which is in danger of becoming extinct and needs protection
COMMENT: IUCN defines three categories of threatened species, in order of danger of extinction: critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable.
Three Three Mile Island Mile Island noun a nuclear power station in Pennsylvania, USA, where an accident in 1979 almost caused the release of large quantities of radioactive substances threshold threshold noun 1. a point or limit at which something changes 2. the limit below which a significant adverse effect is not expected thrive thrive verb (of an animal or plant) to develop and grow strongly ć These plants thrive in very cold environments. throw throw noun the amount of up or down movement of rocks at a fault line thrust thrust noun a force in the crust of the Earth that squeezes and so produces folds thrust thrust fault fault noun a fault in which the upper layers of rock have been pushed forward over the lower layers thunder thunder noun a loud sound generated by lightning in the atmosphere ć The storm was accompanied by thunder and light-
ning. thunderstorm thunderstorm noun a storm with rain, thunder and lightning TiTi symbol titanium tick tick noun a tiny parasite that sucks blood from the skin. Order: Acarida. tidal tidal adjective referring to the tide tidal tidal energy energy, tidal power noun electricity produced by using the force of the tides to drive turbines. Also called wave power tidal tidal prism prism noun a model of water flow in an estuary or other tidal area, used to assess the way in which pollutants are flushed through the area and dispersed till till noun a boulder clay soil mixed with rocks of different sizes, found in glacial deposits í verb to prepare the soil, especially by digging or ploughing, to make it ready for the cultivation of crops tillage tillage noun the activity of preparing the soil for cultivation tilth tilth noun a good light crumbling soil prepared to be suitable for growing plants ć Work the soil into a fine tilth before sowing seeds. timber timber noun trees which have been or are to be cut down and made into logs
timberline timberline noun US same as treeline ć
The slopes above the timberline were cov-
ered with boulders, rocks and pebbles.
tin tin noun 1. a metallic element, used espe-
cially to form alloys (NOTE: The chemical
symbol is Sn; the atomic number is 50 and
the atomic weight is 118.69.) 2. a metal
container for food or drink, made of iron
with a lining of tin or of aluminium. Also
called tin can (NOTE: The US term is can.)
tip tip noun 1. the end part of a plant stem
where growth takes place ć a shoot tip 2. a
place where rubbish or waste is thrown
away ć The siting of the council refuse tip
has caused a lot of controversy. í verb to
throw away rubbish
tipping tipping noun the process of disposing
with rubbish ć a ban on tipping ı fly-tip-
ping
tissue tissue noun a group of cells that carries
out a specific function, of which the organs
of an animal or plant are formed ć photo-
synthetic tissue in leaves ć Most of an ani-
mal’s body is made up of soft tissue, with
the exception of the bones and cartilage.
titanium titanium noun a light metal used to make
strong alloys (NOTE: The fatigue resistance
of titanium is greater than that of aluminium
or steel. The chemical symbol is Ti; the
atomic number 22 and the atomic weight is
47.90.)
titration titration noun a process for measuring the
concentration of a solution
titre titre noun a measurement of the concen-
tration of a solution, as determined by titra-
tion (NOTE: The US spelling is titer.)
toadstool toadstool noun a poisonous fungus that
resembles an edible mushroom
TOE TOE abbr tonnes of oil equivalent
TOID TOID
,
toid
noun
the
unique
16-digit
number attached to buildings and each fea-
ture of the landscape on a digital map. Full
form topographical identifier
tolerable tolerable daily intake daily intake noun the amount
of a substance that it is estimated can be
taken in without risk to health on a daily ba-
sis. Abbr TDI
tolerance tolerance noun 1. the ability of an organ-
ism to accept something, or not to react to
something ć plants with frost tolerance 2.
an allowable variation in something which
can be measured ć a tolerance of 2° ć a
tolerance of 1mm
tolerant tolerant adjective not reacting adversely
to something ć a salt-tolerant plant
tolerate tolerate verb not to react adversely to
something
213
TPO
toleration toleration noun the ability to tolerate
something, or the act of tolerating some-
thing ć poor toleration of high tempera-
tures
ton ton noun 1. a unit of measurement of
weight, equal to 1016 kg. Also called long
ton 2. US a unit of measurement of weight,
equal to 907 kg. Also called short ton
tonne tonne noun a unit of measurement of
weight, equal to 1000 kg. Also called met-
ric ton
tonnes of oil equivalent tonnes of oil equivalent
noun a unit
of measurement of the energy content of a
fuel, calculated by comparing its heat ener-
gy with that of oil. Abbr TOE
toothed toothed adjective 1. having teeth 2. hav-
ing many small indentations around the
edge ć toothed leaves
toothed toothed whale whale noun a whale that has
teeth, e.g. a sperm whale, killer whale, por-
poise or dolphin. Suborder: Odontoceti.
top-down top-down control control noun the system of
regulation of trophic levels by which the
abundance of herbivores in the lower troph-
ic levels is determined by factors such as
predators in the higher levels. Compare
bottom-up control
topographic topographic
,
topographical
adjective
referring to topography
topography topography noun the study of the physi-
cal features of a geographical area
topotype topotype noun a population which has
become different from other populations of
a species because of adaptation to local ge-
ographical features
topset topset bed bed noun a layer of fine-grained
sediment in a river delta
topsoil topsoil noun the top layer of soil, often
containing organic material, from which
chemical substances are washed by water
into the subsoil below
tor tor noun a pile of blocks or rounded gran-
ite rocks found on summits and hillsides
tornado tornado noun a violent storm with a col-
umn of rapidly turning air at the centre of
an area of very low pressure, giving very
high winds and causing damage to build-
ings
torrent torrent noun a violent rapidly flowing
stream of water or lava
torrential torrential adjective referring to very
heavy rain ć The storm brought a torrential
downpour of rain.
total total adjective complete or entire ć The
total world population of the animal is no
more than four or five hundred pairs.
total allowable total allowable catch catch noun the maxi-
mum amount of fish permitted to be caught.
Abbr TAC
total fertility total fertility rate rate noun an average
number of children expected to be born to a
female during her lifetime
town town noun a collection of buildings, an ur-
ban area smaller than a city and larger than
a village
town town hall hall noun a building in a town
where the administrative offices of the
town are situated and where the local coun-
cil has its meetings
town town planner planner noun a person who super-
vises the design of a town and the way the
streets and buildings are laid out and devel-
oped
town town planning planning noun the process of de-
signing a town or city, including the way
the streets and buildings are laid out and de-
veloped
townscape townscape noun the appearance of a
town, the way in which the streets and
buildings are laid out
tox- tox-
,
toxi-
prefix
poison
toxic toxic adjective referring to a substance
that is poisonous or harmful to humans, an-
imals or the environment
toxic toxic emissions emissions plural noun poisonous
chemicals discharged into the air, water or
land
toxicity toxicity noun the degree to which a sub-
stance is poisonous or harmful ć They were
concerned about the high level of toxicity of
the fumes.
toxico- toxico- prefix poison
toxicological toxicological adjective referring to toxi-
cology ć Irradiated food presents no toxi-
cological hazard to humans.
toxicologist toxicologist noun a scientist who spe-
cialises in the study of poisons
toxicology toxicology noun the scientific study of
poisons and their effects on the human
body
toxicosis toxicosis noun poisoning
toxic toxic site site noun land contaminated with
one or more toxic substances, usually not
suitable for human habitation
toxic toxic substance substance noun a substance that
is poisonous or harmful to humans, animals
or the environment
toxic toxic waste waste noun industrial or chemical
waste that is poisonous or harmful to hu-
mans, animals or the environment
toxin toxin noun a poisonous substance pro-
duced by microorganisms. ı mycotoxin
TPO TPO abbr tree preservation order
trace
214
trace trace noun 1. a very small amount of
something ć There are traces of radioac-
tivity in the sample. 2. a line or pattern
made on a screen or piece of paper by a de-
vice recording an electrical signal
trace trace element element noun a chemical element
that is essential to organic growth but only
in very small quantities
COMMENT: Plants require traces of copper,
iron, manganese and zinc. Humans require the trace elements chromium, cobalt, copper, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, selenium and zinc.
trace trace gas gas noun a gas that exists in the at-
mosphere in very small quantities, e.g. xe-
non or helium
tracer tracer noun a substance inserted into an
organism so that its movements may be
tracked from its colour, radioactivity, fluo-
rescence or other characteristic
tract tract noun a wide area of land ć Large
tracts of forest have been destroyed by fire.
trade trade wind wind noun a wind that blows to-
wards the equator, from the north-east in
the northern hemisphere and from the
south-east in the southern hemisphere
traditional traditional adjective referring to some-
thing that has always been done in the same
way ć a traditional system of agriculture ć
Traditional technologies met basic subsist-
ence needs.
traffic traffic noun 1. the vehicles that are travel-
ling in an area at the same time ć rush-hour
traffic 2. aircraft, train and ships that travel
from one place to another ć Lower fares
have resulted in a large increase in air traf-
fic.
traffic-calming measure traffic-calming measure
noun a
means of reducing the number and speed of
motor vehicles using a road, e.g. speed
humps or a speed limit
traffic traffic concentration concentration noun a large
number of vehicles in one place
traffic traffic congestion congestion, traffic jam noun a
blockage caused by too many vehicles on a
road. ı congestion charging
trail trail noun 1. a path or track ć created a
new nature trail in the forest 2. a mark or
scent left by an animal ć on the trail of a
badger
trait trait noun a genetically controlled charac-
teristic
trans- trans- prefix through or across
transboundary pollution transboundary pollution
noun air-
borne or waterborne pollution produced in
one country which crosses to another. Also
called transfrontier pollution
transect transect noun a line used in ecological
surveys to provide a way of measuring and
showing the distribution of organisms
transform transform verb to change the structure or
appearance of something
transformation transformation noun a change in struc-
ture or appearance
transfrontier pollution transfrontier pollution
noun same as
transboundary pollution
transgenic transgenic adjective 1. referring to an
organism into which genetic material from
a different species has been transferred us-
ing the techniques of genetic modification
2. referring to the techniques of transferring
genetic material from one organism to an-
other í noun an organism produced by ge-
netic modification
transhumance transhumance noun the practice of
moving flocks and herds up to high sum-
mer pastures and bringing them down to a
valley again in winter
transition transition noun a change from one state
to another
transitional transitional waters waters noun the area of
surface water in a river mouth that is partly
salty
translocate translocate verb to move substances
through the tissues of a plant
translocated translocated herbicide herbicide noun a herbi-
cide that kills a plant after being absorbed
through its leaves
translocation translocation noun a movement of sub-
stances through the tissues of a plant
transmissible transmissible disease disease noun a disease
which can be transmitted to other individu-
als
transmit transmit verb 1. to send something some-
where else ć The charts are transmitted
from one station to another by fax. 2. to
pass on a disease to another animal or plant
ć Some diseases are transmitted by insects.
(NOTE: transmitting – transmitted)
transpiration transpiration noun the loss of water
from a plant through its stomata
transpire transpire verb (of a plant) to lose water
through stomata ć In tropical rainforests,
up to 75% of rainfall will evaporate and
transpire into the atmosphere.
transplant transplant noun a plant taken from one
place and planted in the soil in another
place í verb to take a growing plant from
one place and plant it in the soil in another
place
transport transport noun 1. a system of moving
things from one place to another ć road
and rail transport ć an integrated trans-
port policy Also called transportation 2.
215
tropism
the activity of moving something from one
place to another
transportation transportation noun same as transport
transuranic transuranic element element noun an artificial
radioactive element which is beyond urani-
um in the periodic table
trash trash noun US unwanted material or
household waste
trawl trawl
,
trawl
net
noun
a
very
long
net
with
a wide mouth tapering to a pointed end,
towed behind a fishing boat at any depth in
the sea
treat treat verb to apply a chemical or physical
process to something in order to get a spe-
cific result ć The fabric has been treated to
make it waterproof.
treatment treatment noun the application of a
chemical or physical process ć anti-corro-
sion treatment ć heat treatment ć the treat-
ment of sewage
tree tree noun a plant typically with one main
woody stem that may grow to a great height
tree tree cover cover noun the percentage of an area
occupied by trees
treehugger treehugger noun somebody who is re-
garded as devoted to environmental protec-
tion in an extreme or foolish way (informal)
treeline treeline noun 1. a line at a specific alti-
tude, above which trees will not grow ć
The slopes above the treeline were covered
with boulders, rocks and pebbles. 2. a line
in the northern or southern hemisphere,
north or south of which trees will not grow
tree preservation tree preservation order order noun an order
from a local government department that
prevents a tree from being cut down. Abbr
TPO
tree tree ring ring noun same as annual ring
tree tree savanna savanna noun a dry grass-covered
plain with some trees
tree-sit tree-sit noun a protest carried out by
spending a period in shelter built in a tree in
an effort to prevent tree-felling or construc-
tion activities
treeware treeware noun paper and paper products
such as books made from wood pulp
tremor tremor noun 1. a slight shaking move-
ment 2. a minor earthquake
trench trench noun a long narrow hole in the
ground
trend trend noun a gradual development ć a
trend towards organic farming
tributary tributary noun a stream or river flowing
into a larger river
tributyltin tributyltin noun a very toxic organic
compound containing tin that is a compo-
nent of the paint used on ships’ hulls and
structures that stand in seawater to prevent
organisms growing on them. Abbr TBT. ı
antifouling paint
trifuralin trifuralin a commonly used herbicide in-
corporated into the soil before planting a
wide range of crops (NOTE: It is under re-
view for withdrawal from use in the Europe-
an Union.)
trigger trigger verb to cause something to operate
or come into effect ć The indicator triggers
an aural warning if specific limits are ex-
ceeded. ć It is not known what triggered
the avalanche.
triple triple bottom line bottom line noun the three crite-
ria of environmental sustainability, social
responsibility and sound financial perform-
ance, used in making ethical investment de-
cisions
tritium tritium noun a rare isotope of hydrogen
trophic trophic adjective referring to nutrition
trophic trophic cascade cascade noun the effect that a
change in the size of one population in a
food web has on the populations below it
trophic trophic chain chain noun same as food chain
trophic trophic level level noun one of the levels in a
food chain
COMMENT: There are three trophic levels. Producers, organisms such as plants, take energy from the Sun or the environment
and convert it into matter. Primary consumers, organisms such as herbivores, eat producers. Secondary consumers are carnivores that eat herbivores; tertiary consumers eat only other carnivores.
trophic trophic pyramid pyramid noun a chart showing
the structure of an ecosystem in terms of
trophic levels
trophic trophic structure structure noun the structure of
an ecosystem, shown by food chains and
food webs. ı dystrophic, eutrophic, mes-
otrophic, oligotrophic
tropho- tropho-
,
troph-
prefix
referring
to
food
or
nutrition
-trophy -trophy suffix 1. nourishment 2. develop-
ment of an organ
-tropic -tropic suffix turning towards
tropical tropical adjective referring to the tropics
ć The disease is carried by a tropical in-
sect.
tropical tropical desert desert noun same as hot
desert
tropics tropics plural noun the region between
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Cap-
ricorn, where the climate is hot and often
humid ć a disease which is endemic in the
tropics
tropism tropism noun the action of a plant organ
turning towards a stimulus
tropopause
216
tropopause tropopause noun a layer of the atmosphere between the troposphere and the stratosphere troposphere troposphere noun the lowest region of the atmosphere, extending to about 12 km above sea level tropospheric tropospheric adjective referring to the troposphere tropospheric tropospheric ozone ozone noun the ozone that is located in the troposphere and plays a significant role in the greenhouse gas effect and urban smog trough trough noun 1. a low point in a cycle ć The graph shows the peaks and troughs of pollution over the seasons. 2. a long narrow area of low pressure with cold air in it, leading away from the centre of a depression trunk trunk noun 1. the main woody stem of a tree 2. the long muscular tube at the front of the head of an elephant, used for grasping things and taking up water tuber tuber noun a swollen underground stem or root, which holds nutrients and which has buds from which shoots develop ć A potato is the tuber of a potato plant. tuberous tuberous adjective 1. like a tuber 2. referring to a plant that grows from a tuber tufa tufa noun a form of calcareous deposit found near hot springs
tundra tundra noun a cold Arctic region without trees which may be covered with low shrubs, grasses, mosses and lichens
turbid turbid adjective referring to a liquid which is cloudy because of particles suspended in it
turbidity turbidity noun cloudiness of a liquid, because of particles suspended in it
turbine turbine noun a mechanical device which converts moving liquid, steam or air into energy by turning a generator
turbocline turbocline noun the lower layer of water at the base of the seasonal boundary layer
turgor turgor noun the normal state of a plant cell when the vacuole is full of water
TW TW abbr terawatt
twin twin noun one of two babies or animals born at the same time from two ova fertilised at the same time or from one ovum that splits in two
twister twister noun US a tornado (informal)
2,4-D 2,4-D noun a herbicide that is absorbed into a plant through its leaves and is especially effective against broadleaved weeds growing in cereals
typhoon typhoon noun a tropical cyclone in East Asia
U
UU symbol uranium UKAEA UKAEA abbr United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority
ultra- ultra- prefix beyond ultrabasic ultrabasic adjective referring to rock which has less silica and more magnesium than basic rock ultramicroscopic ultramicroscopic adjective too small to be seen with a light microscope
ultrananoplankton ultrananoplankton plural noun plankton less than 2 µm in size ultraplankton ultraplankton plural noun plankton in the size range 0.5–10 µm ultrasonic ultrasonic adjective referring to the frequencies in the range of 20000Hz which cannot be heard by the human ear ultrasonics ultrasonics noun the study of ultrasound ultrasonic ultrasonic waves waves plural noun sound waves in the range of 20000Hz ultrasound ultrasound noun sound in the range of 20000Hz which cannot be heard by the human ear ultraviolet ultraviolet adjective referring to the range of invisible radiation wavelengths just greater than those of the visible spectrum. Abbr UV ultraviolet ultraviolet rays rays plural noun the short invisible rays, beyond the violet end of the colour spectrum, which form the tanning and burning element in sunlight
COMMENT: UV rays form part of the highenergy radiation which the Earth receives from the Sun. UV rays are classified as UVA and UVB rays. UVB rays form only a small part of radiation from the Sun but they are dangerous and can cause skin cancer if a person is exposed to them for long periods. The effect of UVB rays is reduced by the ozone layer in the stratosphere
UN UN abbr United Nations un- un- prefix not
unblock unblock verb to remove a blockage from something unconfined unconfined adjective referring to ground water or an aquifer of which the upper surface is at ground level uncontaminated uncontaminated adjective not having been contaminated uncontrollable uncontrollable adjective unable to be controlled
uncontrolled dumping uncontrolled dumping
noun the
throwing away of waste in places that are
not officially approved
uncontrolled uncontrolled dumpsite dumpsite noun a place
where waste is left without permission or
control
uncontrolled uncontrolled fire fire noun a fire which has
ignited accidentally and burns out of con-
trol
uncoordinated uncoordinated adjective not joined to-
gether or working together
uncropped uncropped land land noun land on which
crops are not currently being grown or have
never been grown
uncultivated uncultivated adjective not cultivated ć
uncultivated land and semi-natural areas ć
The field was left uncultivated over winter
to allow ground-nesting birds such as sky-
larks to nest and rear young.
under- under- prefix below or underneath
underbrush underbrush noun same as undergrowth
underdeveloped country underdeveloped country
noun a
country which has not been industrialised
(NOTE: The term that is now preferred is de-
veloping country.)
underground underground adjective, adverb beneath
the surface of the ground ć underground
power cables ć swollen underground stems
ć Foxes live in underground holes. ć
Worms live underground.
undergrowth undergrowth noun shrubs and other
plants growing under large trees
undershot undershot wheel wheel noun a type of water-
wheel where the wheel rests in the flow of
water which passes underneath it and
makes it turn. Compare overshot wheel
(NOTE: It is not as efficient as an overshot
wheel where the water falls on the wheel
from above.)
understorey understorey noun the lowest layer of
small trees and shrubs in a wood, below the
canopy
underwood underwood noun the small trees in a
wood, below the canopy
UNFCCC UNFCCC abbr United Nations Frame-
work Convention on Climate Change
ungulate ungulate adjective having hoofs (NOTE:
Ungulates are divided into two groups, odd-
toed such as horses or even-toed such as
cows.) í noun a grazing animal that has
hooves, e.g. a horse
uni-
218
uni- uni- prefix one
unicellular unicellular adjective referring to an or-
ganism formed of one cell. Compare multi-
cellular
unit unit noun 1. a component of something
larger 2. a quantity or amount used as a
standard, accepted measurement ć The in-
ternationally agreed unit of pressure is the
millibar. ć The higher the Sun is in the sky,
the more intense is the radiation per unit
area.
United Kingdom Atomic Energy United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority
Authority noun the official organisation
in the United Kingdom responsible for all
aspects of atomic energy, both commercial-
ly and in research. Abbr UKAEA
United Nations Framework Con- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
vention on Climate Change noun an
agreement by nearly all world governments
to act on issues affecting climate. Abbr UN-
FCCC
unlawful unlawful adjective not permitted by law
unleaded unleaded petrol petrol noun petrol with a low
octane rating, which has no lead additives
such as tetraethyl lead and therefore creates
less lead pollution in the atmosphere
unlined unlined adjective referring to something
with no lining, such as a landfill site from
which waste liquids can leak out into the
surrounding soil
unnatural unnatural adjective not found in nature
unneutralised unneutralised
,
unneutralized
adjective
not having been made neutral
unpolluted unpolluted adjective not affected by pol-
lution ć the relatively unpolluted atmos-
phere in mountain areas
unsettled unsettled adjective referring to weather
which changes frequently from rainy to
fine and back again
unsightly unsightly adjective not pleasant to look
at ć The company is proposing to run a line
of unsightly pylons across the moors.
unspoilt unspoilt adjective referring to a land-
scape which has not been damaged by de-
velopment ć an area of unspoilt woodland
ć The highland region is still unspoilt.
unstable unstable adjective not stable and liable to
change easily
unsterilised unsterilised
,
unsterilized
adjective
not
free from microorganisms ć unsterilised
bottles
unsustainable unsustainable adjective referring to a
development or process which depletes or
damages natural resources and which does
not leave the environment in good order for
future generations
untapped untapped adjective not yet used ć un-
tapped mineral resources
untreated untreated adjective not subjected to a
treatment process ć Untreated sewage
leaked into the river.
updraught updraught noun a rising air current, usu-
ally of warm air
upfreezing upfreezing noun US a phenomenon in
which loose rocks rise to the surface of the
soil in spring, caused by the freezing of the
soil in winter
upland upland noun an inland area of high land ć
The uplands have different ecosystems from
the lowlands. í adjective referring to an
upland ć upland farming
upland upland farm farm noun same as hill farm
uplands uplands plural noun an inland region of
high land
upstream upstream adverb, adjective towards the
source of a river ć The river is contaminat-
ed for several miles upstream from the estu-
ary. ć Pollution has spread into the lake
upstream of the waterfall. ć Upstream
communities have not yet been affected.
Compare downstream
upwelling upwelling noun the process by which
warmer surface water in the sea is drawn
away from the shore and replaced by colder
water from beneath the surface
uranium uranium noun a naturally radioactive me-
tallic element which is an essential fuel for
nuclear power (NOTE: The chemical symbol
is U; the atomic number is 92 and the atom-
ic weight is 283.04.)
urban urban adjective referring to towns
urban urban area area noun a town or city, area
which is completely built up
urban urban blight blight noun an unattractive, dirty
and dilapidated area in a city or town
urban urban decay decay, urban erosion noun the
condition where part of a city or town be-
comes old, dirty or ruined, because busi-
nesses and wealthy families have moved
away from it
urban urban design design noun the process of decid-
ing how to lay out a town and what type and
style of buildings to have
urban urban fringe fringe noun land at the edge of a
city or town
urban urban growth growth noun an increase in the
size and number of towns
urbanisation urbanisation
,
urbanization
noun
the
spread of built-up areas into the surround-
ing countryside
urban urban landscape landscape noun the visual ap-
pearance of a town
urban urban redevelopment redevelopment, urban regen-
eration, urban renewal noun the process
by which large areas of derelict and indus-
trial land and rundown housing areas are re-
219
vegetable
stored to become thriving communities once more urban urban sprawl sprawl noun the uncontrolled spread of new houses and other buildings on the edges of towns and cities into the countryside ć There is a need to protect the remaining open spaces from urban sprawl. urban urban wastewater wastewater noun water from homes, or the total of water from homes, businesses and rainfall, that flows into the sewage system urea urea noun a crystalline solid produced in the liver from excess amino acids and excreted by the kidneys into the urine (NOTE: It is made commercially from carbon dioxide and ammonia and is used as a fertiliser
and in other products.)
urine urine noun a liquid secreted as waste from an animal’s body user-pays user-pays principle principle noun the principle that a user of a service or resource pays directly for the amount they use, rather than the cost being shared by all the users or a community equally. ı polluter-pays prin-
ciple
utilitarian utilitarian justification justification noun a reasoning for conservation based on the idea that the environment should provide direct economic benefits to the population utility utility noun a company that organises an essential public service such as electricity, gas or public transport UV UV abbr ultraviolet UVR UVR abbr ultraviolet radiation
V
vadose vadose adjective referring to an area
which lies between the surface of the
ground and the water table
vagrant vagrant noun a bird which only visits a
country or region occasionally
vale vale noun same as valley (used especially
in place names)
valley valley noun a long low area, usually with
a river at the bottom, between hills or
mountains. Also called vale
value value noun a quantity shown as a number
vaporise vaporise
,
vaporize
verb
to
turn
into
va-
pour, or to turn something into a vapour ć
Water vaporises when heated.
vapour vapour noun a gaseous form of a liquid
(NOTE: The US spelling is vapor.)
variable variable adjective changing or changea-
ble ć Winds are more variable in the north-
ern hemisphere than in the southern hemi-
sphere.
variant variant noun a specimen of a plant or an-
imal that is different from the usual type
variation variation noun 1. the existence of a dif-
ference in amount, concentration, number
or other feature 2. a difference within a pos-
sible range or from a standard 3. something
that is slightly different from other similar
things
variety variety noun 1. a number of different
things ć a wide variety of reasons why peo-
ple like and dislike cities 2. a type of some-
Green vegetables are a source of dietary fi-
thing 3. a named cultivated plant ć a new variety of wheat Also called cultivar vascular vascular bundle bundle noun a strand of plant tissue containing the xylem and phloem tubes that transport water and food to and from different parts of the plant vascular vascular plant plant noun a plant that has specialised tubes within it for transporting sap (NOTE: All flowering plants, conifers, ferns, clubmosses and horsetails, but not mosses and liverworts, are vascular plants.)
vascular vascular system system noun 1. (in animals) a system of tubes that carry liquid, e.g. blood 2. (in plants) a system of conducting tissues that carry nutrients from the roots to the upper parts of the plant vascular vascular tissue tissue noun a specialised plant tissue consisting of phloem and xylem, which transports dissolved sugar, water and dissolved minerals throughout the plant vector vector noun an insect or animal which carries a disease or parasite and can pass it to other organisms ć The tsetse fly is a vector of sleeping sickness. veer veer verb (of wind) to change in a clockwise direction, in the northern hemisphere ć Winds veer and increase with height ahead of a warm front. Opposite back vegetable vegetable noun a plant grown for food, especially plants grown for leaves, roots or pods or seeds that are usually cooked ć bre.
vegetable farming
220
vegetable vegetable farming farming noun the activity of
growing vegetables for sale
vegetable vegetable kingdom kingdom noun the category
of all organisms classed as plants
vegetarian vegetarian noun, adjective a person who
does not eat meat
vegetation vegetation noun 1. plants that are grow-
ing ć The vegetation was destroyed by fire.
ć Very little vegetation is found in the Arc-
tic regions. 2. the set of plants that is found
in a particular area ć He is studying the
vegetation of the island.
vegetation vegetation loss loss noun the loss of plants
from an area by processes such as pollution
or clearing
vegetation vegetation map map noun a map showing
the pattern of vegetation in an area
vegetative vegetative adjective 1. referring to plants
ć The loss of vegetative cover increases the
accumulation of carbon dioxide in the at-
mosphere. 2. referring to the process of
growth and development 3. referring to re-
production that does not involve sex cells
vegetative vegetative propagation propagation noun the arti-
ficial reproduction of plants by taking cut-
tings or by grafting, not by seed
vegetative reproduction vegetative reproduction
noun a form
of reproduction in which a plant reproduces
itself from parts such as bulbs or tubers
rather than from seed
veil veil noun a thin layer of cloud or mist
vein vein noun a thin tube that forms part of the
structure of a leaf or the circulation system
of an animal, allowing the flow of liquids
vent vent noun 1. a hole through which air,
smoke or gas can leave a building or other
structure 2. a hole through which gases or
lava escape from a volcano
ventilate ventilate verb to cause air to pass in and
out of a place freely
ventilation ventilation noun the process of air pass-
ing in and out of a place freely
ventilation ventilation system system noun a system that
allows fresh air to move around a building
ventilator ventilator noun a device that causes fresh
air to pass into a room or building
ventral ventral adjective referring to the abdomen
or the front of the human body
venturi venturi effect effect noun the rapid flow of a
liquid or a gas as it passes through a nar-
rower channel
verge verge noun 1. the edge or boundary of
something 2. an area of grass and other
plants at the side of a road ć Roadside
verges, especially motorway verges, offer
security from human disturbance, and the
wildlife quickly adapts to the noise and
wind generated by passing vehicles. ˽ on
the verge of at the point where something
starts to happen
vermicide vermicide noun a substance that kills
worms
vermiculite vermiculite noun a substance that is a
form of silica processed into small pieces.
It is used instead of soil in horticulture be-
cause it retains moisture.
vermin vermin noun an organism that is regarded
as a pest ć Vermin such as rats are often
carriers of disease. ı pest (NOTE: Usually
treated as plural.)
vernacular vernacular adjective limited to a specific
area
vernacular vernacular building building noun a building
built in the distinctive local style of the
place where it is found
vernacular vernacular material material noun a building
material found in an area and not brought
from elsewhere
vernal vernal adjective referring to the spring
vernalisation vernalisation
,
vernalization
noun
1.
a
requirement by some plants for a period of
cold in order to develop normally 2. the
technique of making a seed germinate early
by refrigerating it for a time
vertebra vertebra noun one of the ring-shaped
bones which link together to form the back-
bone (NOTE: The plural is vertebrae.)
vertebrate vertebrate noun an animal that has a
backbone í adjective referring to animals
that have a backbone ̈ compare (all sens-
es) invertebrate
vertical-axis wind turbine vertical-axis wind turbine
noun a
type of wind turbine with a vertical main
shaft
vertical-looking radar vertical-looking radar
noun radar
equipment used for analysis of features
such as insect populations and movement.
Abbr VLR
vertical vertical stratification stratification noun an area in
water or soil where layers are found on top
of each other
vessel vessel noun 1. a container for liquids 2. a
tubular structure which carries liquid
around the body of an animal or plant 3. a
ship or boat
vestigial vestigial adjective existing in a simple
and reduced form ć Some snakes have ves-
tigial legs.
veteran veteran tree tree noun same as ancient tree
victim victim noun a person or animal that is in-
jured, harmed or attacked
vigorous vigorous adjective growing strongly ć
Plants put out vigorous shoots in a warm
damp atmosphere.
viral viral adjective referring to or caused by a
virus ć a viral disease
221
vulture
virgin virgin adjective in its natural state, un-
touched by humans ć Virgin rainforest was
being cleared at the rate of 1000 hectares
per month.
viscid viscid adjective same as viscous
viscosity viscosity noun the internal resistance of a
liquid to flowing
viscous viscous adjective referring to a liquid
which is thick, sticky and slow-moving.
Also called viscid
visibility visibility noun the degree to which unlit
objects can be seen by day and lighted ob-
jects can be seen by night ć Measurement
of visibility by day is made by direct obser-
vation of objects at known distances and is
therefore an estimated value.
visible visible adjective referring to something
that can be seen ć The Sun will be clearly
visible through cumulus cloud.
visitor visitor
,
visitant
noun
a
bird
that
comes
to
a region regularly when migrating ć Fly-
catchers are summer visitors to Britain.
vital vital adjective important, or essential for
life ć Vital nutrients are leached from the
topsoil. ć Oxygen is vital to the human sys-
tem.
vitamin vitamin noun a substance not produced in
the body, but found in most foods, and
needed for good health
viviparous viviparous adjective 1. referring to an
animal such as a mammal or some fish that
give birth to live young. Compare ovipa-
rous (NOTE: Birds, reptiles and some fish
lay eggs and are oviparous.) 2. reproducing
by buds that form plantlets while still at-
tached to the parent plant or by seeds that
germinate within a fruit
vivisection vivisection noun the dissection of a liv-
ing animal under experimental conditions
VLR VLR abbr vertical-looking radar
VOC VOC abbr volatile organic compound
volatile volatile adjective referring to a liquid
which easily changes into a gas or vapour
volatile volatile oil oil noun same as essential oil
volatile organic compound volatile organic compound
noun an
organic compound which evaporates at a
relatively low temperature. Abbr VOC
(NOTE: Volatile organic compounds such as
ethylene, propylene, benzene and styrene
contribute to air pollution.)
volcanic volcanic adjective referring to volcanoes volcano volcano noun a mountain surrounding a hole in the Earth’s crust, formed of solidified molten rock sent up from the interior of the Earth
COMMENT: Volcanoes occur along faults in the Earth’s surface and exist in well-known chains. Some are extinct, but others erupt relatively frequently. Some are always active, in that they emit sulfurous gases and smoke, without actually erupting. Volcanic eruptions are a major source of atmospheric pollution, in particular of sulfur dioxide. Very large eruptions cause a mass of dust to enter the atmosphere, which has a noticeable effect on the world’s climate.
voltage voltage noun an electrical force measured in volts
voltage voltage drop drop noun the voltage lost along a wire or conductor due to the resistance of that conductor
volume volume noun 1. the amount of space occupied by a solid, a liquid or a gas ć If the pressure of a given mass of gas is maintained constant, the volume of gas increases as its temperature is increased. 2. the loudness of a transmission
-vore -vore suffix an organism that eats a particular diet
-vorous -vorous suffix eating a particular diet
vortex vortex noun a flow of a liquid in a whirlpool or of a gas in a whirlwind ć The most destructive winds are in the vortex, where the rotation of the whirlwind produces very high wind speeds.
VU VU abbr vulnerable
vulcanism vulcanism noun a movement of magma or molten rock onto or towards the Earth’s surface vulnerability vulnerability noun the degree to which a person, organism, environment or system is likely to be caused harm by an activity
vulnerable vulnerable adjective 1. liable to be easily harmed 2. referring to a species that is likely to become endangered unless protective measures are taken. Abbr VU
vulture vulture noun a large bird of prey that feeds on carrion
W
wader wader noun a bird that feeds on organisms or plants found in shallow water wadi wadi noun a gully with a stream at the bottom, found in the desert regions of North Africa. Compare arroyo Waldsterben Waldsterben noun same as forest die-
back (NOTE: From a German word meaning
‘the dying of trees’.)
Wallace’s Wallace’s line line noun a line dividing the Australasian biogeographical region from the Southeast Asian region wane wane verb (of the Moon or a planet) to appear to grow smaller as less of the illuminated face is visible. Compare wax warfarin warfarin noun a substance used to poison rats, to which many rats in some areas are now resistant warm warm adjective pleasantly hot ć These plants grow fast in the warm season. í verb to make something hotter ć The greenhouse effect has the result of warming the general atmospheric temperature.
warm-blooded warm-blooded adjective referring to an animal such as a mammal that can control its body temperature. ı endotherm warm warm desert desert noun same as mid-latitude
desert
washland washland noun an area of land that is regularly flooded wash wash out out verb to remove a mineral by the action of running water ć Minerals are washed out of the soil during heavy rains. washout washout noun a process in which drops of water form in the atmosphere and then collect pollutant particles as they fall. Compare rainout wastage wastage noun the act of wasting something ć There is an enormous wastage of mineral resources.
waste waste noun material that is thrown away by people or is an unwanted by-product of a process ć household waste ć industrial waste í adjective without a specific use and unwanted ć Waste products are dumped in the sea. ć Waste matter is excreted by the body in the faeces or urine. í verb to use more of something than is needed
‘There are estimated to be 300 000 tonnes of nonnatural wastes produced on agricultural holdings in England and Wales each year. These include a
wide range of materials such as waste packaging, silage plastics, metal, tyres, oils and animal health products. (Agricultural Waste: Opportunities for Change. Information from the Agricultural Waste Stakeholders’ Forum 2003)’
waste waste disposal disposal noun the process of getting rid of household or industrial waste waste waste disposal site disposal site noun same as
waste dump
waste waste disposal unit disposal unit noun a device that fits into the hole in a kitchen sink and grinds household waste into very small pieces so that it can be flushed away waste waste dump dump noun a place where household or industrial waste is left. Also called
waste disposal site
waste waste ground ground noun an area of land that is not used for any purpose wasteland wasteland noun an area of land that is no longer used for agriculture or for any other purpose ć Overgrazing has produced wastelands in Central Africa.
waste waste management management noun the action of controlling and processing household or industrial waste waste waste neutral neutral adjective relating to activities designed to reduce waste and lead to a balance between the production of waste to be recycled and the amount of recycled products used wastepaper wastepaper noun paper that has been thrown away after use waste waste processing processing noun the activity of treating waste material to make it suitable for reuse or safe disposal. Also called
waste treatment
waste waste processing plant processing plant noun a facility where waste material is treated to make it suitable for reuse or safe disposal waste waste product product noun a substance which is produced in a process but is not needed waste waste site site noun same as waste dump waste waste sorting sorting noun the process of separating waste into different categories of material such as glass, metal, paper or plastic waste waste stream stream noun a quantity of separated waste that is all of the same type, e.g. paper or glass (NOTE: A major obstacle to
recycling is the accidental contamination of waste streams – plastic wrapping thrown in a paper bin and so on.)
223
water table
waste waste treatment treatment noun same as waste
processing
wastewater wastewater noun water that is part of ef-
fluent or sewage, especially from industrial
processes ć There is considerable interest
in the anaerobic treatment of industrial
wastewaters. ć Wastewater will add small
but significant quantities of heavy metals to
the aquatic environment.
wastewater treatment wastewater treatment
noun the
processing of wastewater to make it suita-
ble for reuse or safe disposal
wastewater treatment plant wastewater treatment plant
noun a
place where liquid waste is processed
water water noun a liquid which forms rain, riv-
ers, lakes and the sea and which makes up
a large part of the bodies of organisms. For-
mula: H2O. í verb to give water to a plant water water balance balance noun a state in which the
water lost in an area by evaporation or by
runoff is replaced by water received in the
form of rain
waterborne waterborne adjective carried in water
waterborne waterborne disease disease, waterborne in-
fection noun a disease or infection that is
spread by water ć After the floods diar-
rhoea, dysentery and other waterborne dis-
eases spread rapidly.
water water closet closet noun a toilet in which the
excreta are flushed into the sewage system
by running water. Abbr WC
water water column column noun the open water of
the ocean between the surface and the sea
bed
watercourse watercourse noun a stream, river, canal
or other flow of water
water water cycle cycle noun the circulation of water
between the atmosphere, land and sea
(NOTE: The Sun causes water to evaporate
from seas, other bodies of water and land;
it condenses in clouds and then falls back
to the Earth’s surface as rain.)
water water dispersal dispersal noun the spreading of
plant seeds by water
waterfall waterfall noun a place where a river or
stream falls over a steep vertical drop
(NOTE: Some waterfalls only appear in very
wet weather.)
waterfowl waterfowl plural noun birds which live on
water, e.g. ducks
Water Framework Directive Water Framework Directive
noun a
basis for future policy decisions in the Eu-
ropean Union, setting objectives for water
use and management and waste water dis-
posal. Abbr WFD
waterhole waterhole noun 1. a place where water
rises naturally to the surface ć In the
evening, the animals gather round the wa-
terholes to drink. 2. a pool of water created
by boring holes in the ground
waterlogged waterlogged adjective referring to soil
that is saturated with water and so cannot
keep oxygen between its particles (NOTE:
Most plants cannot grow in waterlogged
soil.)
water water management management noun the careful
and appropriate use of water
water water meadow meadow noun a grassy field near
a river, which is often flooded
water water mill mill noun a mill powered by water
water water plant plant noun a plant that grows in
water. Also called aquatic plant
water water pollution pollution noun the introduction of
pollutants into watercourses or the sea, riv-
ers, lakes or canals
water pollution abatement water pollution abatement
noun a re-
duction of pollution in watercourses or the
sea
water water power power noun power derived from a
descending water supply that is converted
to electricity by hydraulic turbines
waterproof waterproof adjective not allowing water
to pass through
water water purification purification noun the removal of
impurities from water
water water quality quality noun the suitability of wa-
ter for human consumption and bathing and
for animals to live in ć Fish have returned
to many rivers because of the improvement
in water quality.
water water resources resources plural noun rivers,
lakes and other surface waters that supply
water for human use
water–salt water–salt balance balance noun a state where
the water in the soil balances the amount of
salts in the soil
watershed watershed noun a natural dividing line
between the sources of river systems, divid-
ing one catchment area from another
waterside waterside adjective referring to a plant
which grows next to a river, lake or other
area of water
water water solubility solubility noun the degree to
which something is able to be dissolved in
water
water-soluble water-soluble adjective able to dissolve
in water
waterspout waterspout noun a phenomenon caused
when a rapidly turning column of air forms
over an area of water, sucking water up into
the column
water water table table noun the area below the soil
surface at which the ground is saturated
with water
watertight
224
watertight watertight adjective not leaking water or other fluid water water turbine turbine noun a device that converts the motion of the flow of water into the turning movement of a wheel ć Water turbines are often used to drive generators or pumps. water water vapour vapour noun air containing suspended particles of water waterway waterway noun a river or canal used as channel for moving from one place to another waterwheel waterwheel noun a wheel with wooden steps or buckets that is turned by the flow of water against it and itself turns machinery such as a mill wheel or an electric generator. ı overshot wheel, undershot wheel waterworks waterworks noun a plant for treating and purifying water before it is pumped into pipes for distribution to houses, factories, schools and other places for use watt watt noun an SI unit of measurement of electrical power. The work done by an electrical circuit or the power consumed is measured in watts. Symbol W watt-hour watt-hour noun a measurement of power with respect to time. One watt-hour is equal to one watt being used for a period of one hour. wave wave noun 1. a mass of water moving across the surface of a lake or the sea, rising higher than the surrounding water as it moves 2. the form in which heat, light, sound or electric current is spread wave wave power power noun electricity produced by using the force of waves (NOTE: In har-
nessing wave power, the movement of waves on the surface of the sea is used to
make large floats move up and down. These act as pumps which supply a contin-
uous flow of water to turn a turbine.)
wave wave refraction refraction noun the tendency of wave crests to turn from their original direction and become more parallel to the shore as they move into shallower water wax wax noun a semi-solid or solid substance of animal, plant or mineral origin í verb (of the Moon or a planet) to appear to grow bigger as more of the illuminated face becomes visible. Compare wane (NOTE: The
Moon waxes between its new and full phases.)
waxy waxy adjective 1. smooth and shiny 2. covered with wax waymarking waymarking noun the practice of indicating the direction of a public path by special signs WC WC abbr water closet
weather weather noun daily atmospheric conditions such as sunshine, wind and precipitation in an area í verb to change the state of soil or rock through the action of natural agents such as rain, sun, frost or wind or by artificially produced pollutants
weather weather chart chart noun a chart showing the state of the weather at a specific moment or changes which are expected to happen in the weather in the near future. Also called
weather map
weather weather front front noun the edge of mass of air where it meets another of different temperature or density. Also called front weathering weathering noun the alteration of the state of soil or rock through the action of natural agents such as rain, sun, frost or wind or by artificially produced pollutants
weather weather map map noun same as weather
chart
web web noun a structure of threads secreted by a spider in the form of a net
webbed webbed adjective with skin between the toes ć Ducks and other aquatic birds have webbed feet. weed weed noun a plant that grows where it is not wanted, e.g. a poppy in a wheat field
(NOTE: Some weeds are cultivated plants, for example oilseed rape growing in hedge-
rows.)
weedkiller weedkiller noun same as herbicide
weedy weedy adjective 1. like a weed 2. weak and not growing well
weedy weedy habit habit noun the tendency of some species of plant to spread onto wasteland
well well noun a hole dug in the ground to the level of the water table, from which water can be removed by a pump or bucket wellhead wellhead noun the top structure of a well above the ground Wentworth-Udden Wentworth-Udden scale scale noun a scale for measuring and describing the size of grains of minerals
COMMENT: The scale runs from the largest size, the boulder, down to the finest grain, clay. The approximate diameters of each grain are: boulder, up to 256 mm; cobble, above 64 mm; pebble, between 4 and 64 mm; gravel, between 2 and 4 mm; sand, between 0.06 and 2 mm; silt and clay are the finest sizes.
wet wet adjective with a lot of moisture wetfall wetfall noun the fall of polluting substances in rain or snow. Compare dryfall wetland wetland noun an area of land where the soil surface is almost level with the water table and where specially adapted vegetation has developed (often plural)
225
wind farm
wetland wetland hydrology hydrology noun the study of periodic flooding or soil saturation which
creates anaerobic conditions in the soil of wetlands wet wet season season noun same as rainy season WFD WFD abbr Water Framework Directive whale whale noun a very large mammal living in the sea. Order: Cetacea.
COMMENT: Whales are the largest mammals still in existence. There are two groups of whales: the toothed whales and the baleen whales. Baleen whales have no teeth and feed by sucking in large quantities of water which they then force out again through their baleen, which is a series of fine plates like a comb hanging down from the upper jaw. The baleen acts like a sieve and traps any plankton and krill which are in the water. The toothed whales have teeth and eat fish. They include the sperm whale, the killer whale and porpoises and dolphins. Whales are caught mainly for their oils, though also in some cases for food. Some species of whale have become extinct because of overexploitation and the population of many of the existing species is dangerously low. Commercial whaling is severely restricted.
whaler whaler noun a boat which is specially
equipped for catching whales. Also called whaling boat whaling whaling noun the catching of whales to
use as food or for their oil and other commodities whaling whaling boat boat noun same as whaler whaling whaling fleet fleet noun a group of boats specially equipped for catching whales wheat wheat noun a cereal crop grown in temperate regions. Genus: Triticum. (NOTE: Wheat is one of the major arable crops.)
wheatgerm wheatgerm noun the central part of the wheat seed, which contains valuable nutrients wheatmeal wheatmeal noun brown flour with a large amount of bran, but not as much as is
in wholemeal whirlpool whirlpool noun a rapidly turning eddy of water whirlwind whirlwind noun a column of rapidly turning air at the centre of an area of very low pressure (NOTE: Over water a whirlwind be-
comes a waterspout and over desert a
dust devil.)
wholefood wholefood noun food such as brown rice or wholemeal flour that has not been processed and so contains the vitamins, miner-
als and fibre that are removed by processing wholegrain wholegrain noun a cereal grain containing the whole of the original seed, including the bran
wholemeal wholemeal noun flour that contains a
large proportion of the original wheat seed,
including the bran
wild wild adjective not domesticated
wilderness wilderness noun an area of wild unculti-
vated land, usually a long way from human
habitation
wilderness wilderness area area noun an area of unde-
veloped land that is protected, as a national
park or other conservation area
Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust
noun
full form of WWT
wildland wildland noun uncultivated land in its
natural state, especially considered as a
habitat for wildlife
wildlife wildlife noun wild animals of all types, in-
cluding birds, reptiles and fish ć Planta-
tions of conifers are poorer for wildlife than
mixed or deciduous woodlands. ć The ef-
fects of the open-cast mining scheme would
be disastrous on wildlife, particularly on
moorland birds.
Wildlife and Countryside Act Wildlife and Countryside Act
noun
in the UK, the main legislation under which
native wildlife is protected
wildlife wildlife refuge refuge noun an area maintained
for the preservation of the habitats of some
types of wild animals such as migratory
waterfowl or for animals in an urban set-
ting, but which people are allowed to visit
wildlife wildlife reserve reserve noun an area where an-
imals and their environment are protected
Wildlife Wildlife Trust Trust noun any of a network of
organisations working to protect wildlife
wildscape wildscape noun remote countryside in a
natural state with a wild, rough character
willow willow noun a temperate hardwood tree
that often grows near water. Genus: Salix.
(NOTE: Willow is sometimes grown as a
crop and is coppiced or pollarded to pro-
duce biomass for fuel.)
wind wind noun air which moves in the lower
atmosphere, or a stream of air ć The weath-
er station has instruments to measure the
speed of the wind.
wind wind chill factor chill factor noun a way of calcu-
lating the risk of exposure in cold weather
by adding the speed of the wind to the
number of degrees of temperature below
zero
wind wind dispersal dispersal noun the spread of plant
seeds as a result of being blown by the wind
wind-driven wind-driven adjective powered by the
wind
wind wind erosion erosion noun erosion of soil or
rock by wind
wind wind farm farm noun a group of large wind-
mills or wind turbines, built to harness the
wind generator
226
wind to produce electricity ć Wind farms in estuaries may adversely affect bird populations. Also called wind park
wind wind generator generator noun a machine used to produce electricity from the wind
windmill windmill noun 1. a construction with sails which are turned by the wind, providing the power to drive a machine. ı panemone 2. same as wind turbine
wind wind park park noun same as wind farm
wind wind pollination pollination noun pollination of flowers by pollen which is blown by the wind
wind wind power power noun the power generated by using wind to drive a machine or turbine which creates electricity
wind wind pump pump noun a pump driven by the wind, which raises water out of the ground
windrow windrow noun a row of the cut stalks of a crop, gathered together and laid on the ground to be dried by the wind
wind wind turbine turbine noun a turbine driven by wind
windward windward adjective referring to a position exposed to the wind ć The trees provide shelter on the windward side of the house.
wing wing noun 1. one of the feather-covered limbs of a bird or membrane-covered limbs of a bat that are used for flying 2. an outgrowth on a seed case of seeds such as sycamore dispersed by wind
wing wing span span noun the distance between the tip of one wing to the tip of the other wing
wing wing tip tip noun the outermost end of a wing
winter winter noun the season of the year, following autumn and before spring, when the weather is coldest, the days are short, most plants do not flower or produce new shoots and some animals hibernate í verb to spend the winter in a place
winterbourne winterbourne noun a stream which flows only in the wetter part of the year, usually in winter
wintering wintering ground ground noun an area where birds come each year to spend the winter
wither wither verb (of plants, leaves, flowers) to shrivel and die
wolds wolds plural noun areas of low chalk or limestone hills
wood wood noun 1. a large number of trees growing together 2. a hard tissue which forms the main stem and branches of a tree 3. a construction material that comes from trees
-wood -wood suffix referring to wood ć an elm-
wood stool
wood-burning pollution wood-burning pollution
noun pollu-
tion caused by burning wood
wood-burning wood-burning stove stove noun same as
woodstove
woodfuel woodfuel noun wood which is used as
fuel
woodland woodland noun an area in which the
main vegetation is trees with some spaces
between them
woodland woodland burial burial noun an act of burial
designed to have low environmental im-
pact, typically placing a corpse that has not
been embalmed in a biodegradable coffin
or bag and burying it in a natural woodland
setting without a headstone. ı green burial
woodland management woodland management
noun the
controlling of an area of woodland so that it
is productive, e.g. by regular felling, cop-
picing and planting
woodlot woodlot noun a small area of land planted
with trees
wood wood pasture pasture noun a long-established
area of parkland, in which trees are often
very old
wood wood pulp pulp noun softwood that has been
pulverised into small fibres and mixed with
water, used to make paper
woodstove woodstove noun a heating device that
burns wood. Also called wood-burning
stove
working working environment environment noun the sur-
roundings in which a person works
workings workings plural noun 1. the parts of
something such as a machine that allow it
to operate 2. underground tunnels in a mine
work work out out verb to use up something such
as a mineral resource completely ć The
coal mine was worked out years ago.
world world noun 1. the Earth ć a map of the
world ć to sail round the world 2. a partic-
ular society, community or situation ć the
bird world ć the world of work
worldwide worldwide adjective, adverb referring to
or covering the whole world ć the world-
wide energy crisis ć We sell our products
worldwide.
worm worm noun 1. an invertebrate animal with
a soft body and no limbs, e.g. a nematode or
flatworm 2. an invertebrate animal with a
long thin body and no legs that lives in large
numbers in the soil. Also called earth-
worm
WWF WWF abbr World Wide Fund for Nature
WWT WWT abbr Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust
XYZ
Xe Xe symbol xenon xeno- xeno- prefix different xenobiotics xenobiotics plural noun chemical compounds that are foreign to an organism xenon xenon noun an inert gas, traces of which are found in the atmosphere (NOTE: The
chemical symbol is Xe; the atomic number is 54 and the atomic weight is 131.30.)
xeric xeric adjective referring to a dry environment. Compare hydric xero- xero- prefix dry xeromorphic xeromorphic adjective referring to a plant which can prevent water loss from its stems during hot weather xerophilous xerophilous adjective referring to a plant which lives in very dry conditions xerophyte xerophyte noun a plant which is adapted to living in very dry conditions
xerosere xerosere noun a succession of communities growing in very dry conditions xerothermic xerothermic adjective referring to an organism which is adapted to living in very dry conditions X-ray X-ray noun a ray with a very short wavelength, which is invisible, but can go through soft tissue and register as a photograph on a film xylem xylem noun the tissue in a plant which transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant. Compare phloem xylophagous xylophagous adjective wood-eating xylophilous xylophilous adjective preferring to grow on wood yeast yeast noun a single-celled fungus that is used in the fermentation of alcohol and in making bread yellowing yellowing noun 1. a condition where the leaves of plants turn yellow, caused by lack of light 2. a sign of disease or of nutrient deficiency yield yield noun the quantity of a crop or a product produced from a plant or from an area of land ć The usual yield is 8 tonnes per hectare. ć The green revolution increased rice yields in parts of Asia. í verb to produce a quantity of a crop or a product ć The rice can yield up to 2 tonnes per hectare. ć
The oil deposits may yield 100 000 barrels
a month.
zero emission zero emission vehicle vehicle noun an elec-
tric-powered vehicle with no direct emis-
sions from its tailpipe or fuel evaporation.
Abbr ZEV
zero population zero population growth growth noun a state
when the numbers of births and deaths in a
population are equal and so the size of the
population remains the same
ZEV ZEV abbr zero emission vehicle
zinc zinc noun a white metallic trace element,
essential to biological life. It is used in al-
loys and as a protective coating for steel.
(NOTE: The chemical symbol is Zn; the
atomic number is 30 and the atomic weight
is 65.38.)
zonal zonal adjective referring to a zone
zonation zonation noun a pattern of changes in the
structure of a community depending on
moisture levels, soil type and altitude ć zo-
nation of seaweeds on the seashore
zone zone noun an area of land, sea or of the at-
mosphere
zoning zoning noun an order by a government or
local council that an area of land shall be
used only for a specific type of building or
for a specific purpose, e.g. agricultural, in-
dustrial, recreational or residential
zoo- zoo- prefix animal
zoobenthos zoobenthos noun the invertebrate ani-
mals that live in or on the seabed, including
the intertidal zone
zooecology zooecology noun the scientific study of
the relationship between animals and their
environment
zoogeographical zoogeographical adjective referring to
animals and geography
zoogeographical region zoogeographical region
noun a large
area of the world where the fauna is differ-
ent from that in other areas. ı biogeo-
graphical region
zoological zoological adjective referring to zoology
zoologist zoologist noun a scientist who specialis-
es in zoology
zoology zoology noun the scientific study of ani-
mals
zoonosis zoonosis noun a disease that a human
can catch from an animal
zoonotic
228
zoonotic zoonotic adjective referring to a disease that a human can catch from an animal zoophyte zoophyte noun an animal that looks like a plant, e.g. a sea anemone zooplankton zooplankton plural noun microscopic animals that live and drift in water
zooxanthellae zooxanthellae plural noun microscopic algae that live inside cells of sea animals, especially corals, each organism benefiting from the relationship zygote zygote noun a fertilised ovum, the first stage of development of an embryo
SUPPLEMENTS
Nitrogen Cycle, Carbon Cycle Beaufort scale Richter scale
Outline Criteria for Threatened Species Critically Endangered Species Natural Disasters Manmade Disasters
Nitrogen Cycle
action of lightning
atmospheric nitrogen
industrial processes
legumes (nitrifying bacteria in nodules on roots)
ammonia
decay
animals wastes feeding
protein in plants
synthetic fertiliser
nitrite
denitrifying bacteria
nitrates in soil
Carbon Cycle
carbon dioxide in air and water
photosynthesis coal, oil
respiration, decay, burning
limestone
respiration
decay
plants
animals
Beaufort scale
The Beaufort scale was devised in 1805 by Sir Francis Beaufort, a captain (later admiral) in the British Royal Navy, to measure the observable effects of wind force at sea. It was later adapted to include effects on land, and wind speed equivalents were officially incorporated in 1926. Sailors and forecasters use the Beaufort scale as a standardised way to rate wind speed. Warnings of potentially dangerous conditions for people in small boats are usually issued at a rating of six on the scale. The Beaufort number is also referred to as a ‘Force’ number, for example ‘Force 10 Gale’.
Beaufort number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Wind speed km/h below 1 1 - 6 7 - 12 13 - 19 20 - 30 31 - 39 40 - 50 51 - 62 63 - 74 75 - 87 88 - 102 103 - 117 above 118
Wind speed mph below 1 1 - 3 4 - 7 8 - 12 13 - 18 19 - 24 25 - 31 32 - 38 39 - 46 47 - 54 55 - 63 64 - 72 above 73
Description Calm
Light air Light breeze Gentle breeze Moderate breeze Fresh breeze Strong breeze Moderate gale
Fresh gale Strong gale Whole gale
Storm Hurricane
Richter scale
The Richter scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake based on how much the ground shakes at a distance of 100 km (60 miles) from the epicentre of an earthquake (the site on the earth’s surface directly above its origin). Other systems used by seismologists to measure earthquakes include the Modified Mercalli scale, a 12-point scale that measures intensity at different locations.
Richter number 1 2 3
Increase in the motion of the ground 1
10
100
Results
Generally not felt, but recorded on seismometers
4
1 000
Felt by many people; trees sway
5
10 000
Poorly built structures damaged
6
100 000
Specially designed structures damaged; others collapse
7
1 000 000
Many structures destroyed; cracks in ground
8+
10 000 000
Severe destruction; very wide cracks in ground
Outline Criteria for Threatened Species
Based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species where full details of the full criteria for each category will be found. The list includes more than 12 000 species (2003).
Extinct
Extinct in the wild
Near threatened
Least concern
Threatened
Critically Endangered
(CR)
Endangered (EN)
Vulnerable (VU)
Population size reduction in 10 years or 3 generations Geographic range: extent of occurrence
Geographic range: area of occupancy
Population
CR
EN
VU
more than 80-90%
more than 50-70%
more than 30-50%
less than 100 km2
less than 5 000 km2 less than 20 000 km2
less than 10 km2
less than 50-250 mature individuals
less than 500 km2
less than 250-2 500 mature individuals
less than 2 000 km2
less than 1 000-10 000 mature individuals
Critically Endangered Species
The following species are among those categorised by IUCN - The World Conservation Union as ‘Critically Endangered’. This category of threat means that the species faces a probability of extinction in the immediate future. A full list of threatened species in various categories can be found in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2003).
Amsterdam Albatross (Diomedea amsterdamensis) Antarctic, Oceania Bachman's Warbler (Vermivora bachmanii) Caribbean, North America Bahia Tapaculo (Scytalopus psychopompus) South America Beck's Petrel (Pseudobulweria becki) Oceania Bogota Sunangel (Heliangelus zusii) South America Bottle Palm (Hyophorbe lagenicaulis) Subsaharan Africa Bulo Burti Boubou / Bush-shrike (Laniarius liberatus) Subsaharan Africa California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) North America, Central America Campbell Island Teal (Anas nesiotis) Oceania Chinese Crested Tern (Sterna bernsteini) East Asia, Southeast Asia Clay's Hibiscus (Hibiscus clayi) North America Cone-billed Tanager (Conothraupis mesoleuca) South America Crested Shelduck (Tadorna cristata) North Asia, East Asia Dwarf Olive Ibis (Bostrychia bocagei) Subsaharan Africa Eskimo Curlew (Numenius borealis) North America, South America Garrido's Hutia (Mysateles garridoi) Caribbean Glaucous Macaw (Anodorhynchus glaucus) South America Grey Wood-pigeon / Silvery Wood-pigeon (Columba argentina) SE Asia Guadaloupe Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma macrodactyla) Central America Hainan Sonneratia Sonneratia hainanensis East Asia Hawaiian Thrush (Myadestes lanaiensis or Myadestinus) North America Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa) Southeast Asia Hooded Seedeater (Sporophila melanops) South America Imperial Woodpecker (Campehilus imperialis) Central America Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) Southeast Asia Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) North America, Caribbean Jamaica Petrel (Pterodroma caribbaea) Caribbean Jamaican Paraque (Siphonorhis americanus) Caribbean Javanese Lapwing / Sunda Plover (Vanellus macropterus) Southeast Asia Kakapo / Owl Parrot (Strigops habroptilus) Oceania Kalinowski's Tinamou (Nothoprocta kalinowskii) South America Land Lobster (Dryococelus australis) Australia Ley's Whitebeam (Sorbus leyana) Europe
Critically Endangered Species continued
Little Blue Macaw / Spix’s Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) South America Luquillo Mountain Manjack / Wagner’s Cordia (Cordia wagnerorum)
Caribbean Madeira Petrel / Zino’s Petrel (Pterodroma madeira) Europe Magdalena Tinamou (Crypturellus saltuarius) South America Makira Moorhen / San Cristobal Moorhen (Gallinula silvestris) Oceania Mauritius Parakeet (Psittacula eques) Subsaharan Africa Mongarlowe Mallee (Eucalyptus recurva) Oceania Mount Glorius Torrent Frog (Taudactylus diurnis) Oceania Negros Fruit Dove (Ptilinopus arcanus) Philippines New Caledonian Rail (Gallirallus lafresnayanus) Oceania New Caledonian Lorikeet (Charmosyna diadema) Oceania New England Owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles savesi) Oceania Newton's Fiscal / São Tomé Fiscal (Lanius newtoni) Subsaharan Africa Night Parrot (Geopsittacus occidentalis) Oceania Nukupuu (Hemignathus lucidus) North America Oahu Creeper / Oahu Alauahio (Paroreomyza maculata) North America Ou (Psittirostra psittacea) North America Owl Parrot / Kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) Oceania Pear Clermontia (Clermontia pyrularia) Hawaiian Islands Peppered Tree Frog (Litoria piperata) Australia Père David's Deer (Elaphurus davidianus) East Asia Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) Southeast Asia Pohnpei Mountain Starling / Pohnpei Starling (Aplonis Pelzelni) Oceania Puerto Rican Amazon / Puerto Rican Parrot (Amazona vittata) Caribbean Red Wolf (Canis rufus) North America Rueck's Blue-flycatcher / Rueck's Niltava (Cyornis ruckii) Southeast Asia Samoan Moorhen (Gallinula pacifica) Oceania San Cristobal Moorhen / Makira Moorhen (Gallinula silvestris) Oceania São Tomé / Canary / Goldfinch / Grosbeak (Neospiza concolor) Subsaharan
Africa Sebucan (Leptocereus quadricostatus) Caribbean Semper's Warbler (Leucopeza semperi) Caribbean Seychelles Magpie-robin (Copsychus sechellarum) Subsaharan Africa,
Southeast Asia Siau Scops-owl (Otus siaoensis) Southeast Asia Sicilian Fir (Abies nebrodensis) Europe Silvery Wood-pigeon / Grey Wood-pigeon (Columba argentina) SE Asia Skulpin (Physiculus helenaensis) Subsaharan Africa Spiny Logwood (Xylosma pachyphyllum) Caribbean
Critically Endangered Species continued
Spix's Macaw / Little Blue Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) South America St Helena Dragonet (Callionymus sanctaheclenae) Subsaharan Africa Stresemann's Bristlefront (Merulaxis stresemannii) South America Sumatran Ground-cuckoo (Carpococcyx viridis) Southeast Asia Sunda Plover / Javanese Lapwing (Vanellus macropterus) Southeast Asia Tahiti Flycatcher / Tahiti Monarch (Pomarea nigra) Oceania Thick-billed Ground-dove (Gallicolumba salamonis) Oceania Three-nerved Alsunidendron (Alsunidendron trinerve) Hawaiian Islands Turquoise-throated Puffleg (Eriocnemis godini) South America Virginia Round-leaf Birch (Betula uber) North America Wagner's Cordia / Luquillo Mountain Manjack (Cordia wagnerorum)
Caribbean Waikane Valley Cyrtandra (Cyrtandra kaulantha) Hawaiian Islands White-breasted Silver-eye / White-breasted White-eye (Zosterops albogularis) Oceania White-eyed River-martin (Eurychelidon sirintarae) Southeast Asia Yellow-spotted Tree Frog (Litoria castanea) Australia Zino's Petrel / Madeira Petrel (Pterodroma madeira) Europe
Natural Disasters
Jul 1979-May 1981 Drought. China (Hebei). Worst for sixty years. Much of area normally one of the most fertile in China, became a virtual desert. 14 000 000 peasants left dependent on government grain rations. It was estimated 2 000 000 children were suffering from malnutrition. Aug-Sept 1980 Hurricane David. Dominican Republic. 20 killed. 60 000 homeless. Banana and grapefruit crops destroyed. May 1980 Volcanic eruption. USA (Washington State). 2 000 people evacuated. Large quantities of volcanic ash blanketed communities to a depth of several feet in parts of Washington, Idaho and Montana. Oct 1980 Earthquakes. El Asnam, Algeria. 7.5 and 6.5 on Richter scale. 3 600 dead. 8 252 injured. 300 000 homeless. The town had been destroyed in 1954 by another earthquake which killed 1 000. It was rebuilt by the French with supposedly ‘quake-proof’ structures. These were the worst affected by the 1980 earthquake. Nov 1980 Earthquake. Southern Italy. 6.8 on Richter scale. Aftershocks continued for 10 days. 200 towns and villages affected: Naples, Salerno, Avellino worst affected. 4 500 dead. 8 000 injured. 350 000 homeless. Jul 1981 Floods. China (Sechuan). 1 385 dead. 14 109 injured. Affected 10 million people in 135 of the province’s 212 counties, threatened the Gezhouba dam and destroyed more than l 000 000 acres of crops. Late 1982-1983 Floods. Eastern Bolivia. 40 500 hectares (100 000 acres) of prime agricultural land destroyed. In the high valleys of Bolivia and in southern Peru drought conditions devastated the potato crop affecting about 2 million people. Dec 1982 Earthquake. Northern Yemen (Dhamar). 6.0 on Richter scale. 1 588 killed. 1 604 injured. 200 000 homeless. Feb 1983-Jul 1984 Drought. Northeastern Brazil. Fifth year of drought. 850 000 sq kms affected. 70% of population suffering from malnutrition. May 1985 Cyclone and tsunami. Southeastern Bangladesh. 11 000 killed. 250 000 homeless. Sept 1985 Earthquake. Mexico City, Mexico. 8.1 on Richter scale. More than 7 000 dead. 30 000 injured. 10 000 seriously. 100 000 homeless. Nov 1985 Volcanic eruption. Colombia. The Nevado del Ruiz volcano erupted leaving 22 000 dead, 4 000 injured and 20 000 homeless. The village of Armero was totally engulfed by a torrent of mud when La Lagunilla river burst its banks. 11 000 hectares of agricultural land ruined. Aug 1986 Toxic gases following volcanic eruption. Cameroon. Toxic gases (a mixture of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide) were released from volcanic Lake Nyos, near the Nigerian border, killing 1 746 and injuring 3 000, though exact numbers of casualties will probably never be known. In Nyos village only 2 out of a population of 700 survived. 10 Oct 1986 Earthquake. San Salvador, El Salvador. 7.5 on Richter scale. 1 500 killed. 300 000 homeless. On the outskirts of the city a landslide buried 100 people. Mar 1987 Earthquake. Ecuador. 7.3 on Richter scale. Followed by 1 300 aftershocks. 2-4 000 killed. 50 000 homeless. Mudslides entombed whole villages. Aug-Sept 1987 Floods. Bangladesh. 70 killed (a very low estimate). 24 000 000 homeless and without food (from a total population of 100 000 000. 2 000 000 homes, 2 600 kms of road and 4 300 000 acres of land devastated.
Natural Disasters continued
Sept 1987 Heavy rains and mudslides. Medellin, Columbia. Shanty town of Villa Tina buried by mud. 355 people dead. 200 seriously injured. 2 100 homeless. Feb 1988 Mudslides. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In a shanty town in Rio after weeks of torrential rain. 300 killed. 735 seriously injured. 11 000 homeless. Mid 1988 Drought. USA. Farming lands were turned into disaster areas and world food production fell. Aug-Sept 1988 Floods. Bangladesh. Widespread flooding on a similar scale to the floods of 1987. Sept 1988 Hurricane Gilbert. Jamaica. Over 200 mph winds. Left a trail of destruction across Jamaica, Grand Cayman, the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, Texas. At least 240 killed, most of those in Yucatan. Nov 1988 Earthquake. China. 7.6 on Richter scale. 900 people killed. Dec 1988 Earthquake. Armenia. 6.7 on Richter scale. 55 000 dead. 250 000 left homeless. 80% were still living in makeshift huts and tents in April 1991. Apr 1989 Tornado. Bangladesh. 1 000 people killed and many villages destroyed. Sept 1989 Hurricane Hugo. USA. Widespread devastation in the northeastern Caribbean and southeastern USA. Winds reached up to 140 mph. Guadeloupe and Leeward Islands: 6 killed, 10 000 homeless and many crops destroyed. Montserrat: 10 killed, hospital and houses destroyed and airport runway blocked. Puerto Rico: 25 killed, 100 000 homeless. Dominica: much of banana crop destroyed. South Carolina: 5 killed, houses damaged, services disrupted. Oct 1989 Earthquake. San Francisco, USA. 6.9 on Richter scale. About 100 people killed, mostly when the elevated section of Interstate 880 highway collapsed crushing people in their cars. Feb 1990 Mudslide. Peru. The village of San Miguel de Rio Mayo, 800 km north of Lima, was buried. 200 people killed or missing. May 1990 Earthquake. Peru. 5.8 on Richter scale. About 200 people killed, villages flattened by landslides. Jan 1991 Epidemic. Latin America. Cholera broke out in Peru and spread to Brazil, Colombia, Chile and Ecuador. WHO estimates 42 000 people could die unless steps are taken to combat malnutrition and lack of basic sanitary and medical facilities. Famine. Still critical in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Mozambique and Angola, all countries in which armed conflict exacerbated food distribution problems. 2 Feb 1991 Earthquake. Afghanistan. 6.5-6.8 on Richter scale. 1 000 killed, many more injured. Resulting floods killed 200 and left 3.000 people homeless. Mar 1991 Floods and mudslides. Malawi. 516 people dead or missing. 40-50 000 homeless. Apr 1991 Earthquake. Peru. Three earthquakes, the worst of which was 6.9 on the Richter scale. 35 killed. 750 injured. Apr 1991 Earthquake. Costa Rica, Panama. 7.5 on Richter scale. About 80 people killed, 800 injured, thousands of homes destroyed. Apr 1991 Cyclone. Bangladesh. Winds up to 145 mph. 139 000 killed and thousands more threatened by epidemic. Up to 10 000 000 people homeless, 4 000 000 at risk from starvation. Toll would have been worse but for 300 cyclone shelters built under Cyclone Preparedness Programme set up by Red Crescent. Apr 1991 Earthquake. Georgia, Russia. 7.2 on Richter scale. 100 people killed, several villages totally destroyed.
Natural Disasters continued
Jun 1991 Volcano. Philippines. After lying dormant for 600 years Mount Pinatubo suffered several eruptions, some shooting volcanic ash and rock 19 miles into the air. At least 343 people were killed and 100-200 000 made homeless. 600 000 Filipinos lost their means of livelihood. Dec 1991 Earthquake. Romania. 5.7 on Richter scale. 1 700 people made homeless. Dec 1991 Floods. Texas, USA. 13.3 inches of rain fell in six days. At least 14 people were killed. Late Dec 1991 Cyclone. Hanoi, Vietnam. 220 people killed. Feb 1992 Avalanche. South Eastern Turkey. Avalanches smothered remote villages killing at least 167 people, most of them soldiers. Aug 1992 Hurricane Andrew. USA (Bahamas, Florida and Louisiana). Winds up to 264 km/hr. Hurricane Andrew caused extensive damage to property, estimated at $20 000 million in Florida. 38 people killed. Up to 200 000 people homeless. Sept 1992 Flooding. Pakistan. Floods engulfed thousands of villages and vast acres of cropland especially in Punjab, the worst affected province. More than 2 000 people killed. At least 3 000 000 homeless. Sept 1992 Tidal wave. Nicaragua. Coastal settlements devastated by tidal wave up to 15 metres high, triggered by earthquake beneath Pacific Ocean. Over 200 people dead. 4 200 homeless. Oct 1992 Earthquake. Cairo, Egypt. 5.9 on Richter scale. 552 people killed. About 3 000 injured. Hundreds made homeless. Dec 1992 Mudslide. Bolivia. Town of Caranavi engulfed. Homes pushed into Tipuani River. Around 350 people killed. 135 injured. Dec 1992 Earthquake. Indonesia (Nusa Tenggara). 6.8 on Richter scale. As many as 2 000 people killed. Created a 24 metre-high tidal wave, devastating the coastal town of Maumere, killing over 1 000 and damaging a third of the buildings. Feb 1993 Floods. Yemen, Iran. Widespread damage. At least 500 people killed. More than 1 500 people displaced. Mar 1993 Severe storms. USA. Heavy snow and floods caused widespread destruction from the Florida Keys through the Deep South to northern New England. 50 tornadoes hit Florida. At least 163 people killed. Mar 1993 Earthquake. Erzincan, Turkey. 6.8 on Richter scale. More than 500 people killed. Over 1 000 injured. Apr 1993 Floods and landslides. Colombia. At least 59 people killed in north-west area. Thousands homeless. May 1993 Floods and mudslides. Tadjikistan. At least 200 people killed. May 1993 Landslide. Ecuador. Over 200 people killed in a village in south Ecuador as 15 000 tonnes buried the community. Jun 1993 Floods. Bangladesh. About 100 people killed. More than 1 million displaced. Worst affected area was Sylhet district. Jun 1993 Mudslide. Kabul, Afghanistan. 115 people reported killed. Jul 1993 Torrential rains and mudslides. India, Nepal, Bangladesh. Worst hit areas of India in Assam and West Bengal. More than 3 700 people killed, and millions made homeless. Jul 1993 Flooding. USA. Midwest affected as Mississippi-Missouri river system burst its banks. 40 000 sq km flooded. At least 45 dead. 30 000 homes ruined.
Natural Disasters continued
Jul 1993 Earthquake. Japan. 7.8 on Richter scale. Ensuing tidal waves struck parts of Hokkaido, Honshu and devastated coastal regions of Okushiri. Triggered landslides and fires. Over 150 people killed. Aug 1993 Tropical storm. Venezuela. Torrential rain and high winds caused mudslides in shanty towns above Caracas. At least 150 killed. More than 400 injured. Sept 1993 Earthquake. India. 6.5 on Richter scale. Devastation in states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Over 9 000 people killed. Umarga and Khilari worst hit towns. More than 30 villages flattened. Jan 1994 Earthquake. Los Angeles, USA. 57 people killed, thousands injured and about 25 000 homeless. Damage estimated at costing up to $20 000 million. Feb 1994 Earthquake. Indonesia. Struck southern Sumatran province of Lampung, killing 200 people and injuring 2 700. May 1994 Cyclone. Bangladesh. 165 people officially reported killed as cyclone hit southeastern coast. Jun 1994 Earthquake. Colombia. 250 people killed as earthquake triggered mudslide in southwestern region. 11 000 homeless. Aug 1994 Earthquake. Western Algeria. 5.6 on Richter scale. 149 people killed. Jan 1995 Flooding. North Western Europe. More than 300 000 people fled their homes in Belgium, France, Germany and The Netherlands. 40 people killed. Immediate natural cause of flood was heavy rain and snow-melt. Jan 1995 Earthquake. Kobe, Japan. 7.2 on Richter scale. About 5 000 people killed. 250 000 homeless. Widespread damage estimated at $50 000 million. Jan 1995 Avalanches and snowstorms. Kashmir, India. More than 200 deaths. Feb 1995 Earthquake. Colombia. 6.4 on Richter scale. 37 people killed and 200 injured in south-west region. Mar 1995 Landslide. Afghanistan. 354 people killed in village of Qara Luk, in the northern province of Badakhshan. May 1995 Earthquake. Sakhalin Island, Russia. 7.5 on Richter scale. Estimated 2 000 people killed. Many thousands homeless. Jun 1995 Earthquake. Greece. 6.1 on Richter scale. 25 people killed and 60 injured in western Greece. Jun-Jul 1995 Flooding. China (Hunan). 1 200 people killed, 1 200 000 displaced. Jul 1995 Flooding. Pakistan. Floods caused by heavy rains in provinces of Baluchistan, Punjab and Sind killed more than 120 people. mid-Jul 1995 Flooding. Bangladesh. More than 200 people died amid spread of disease following devastating floods which engulfed 38 districts. Jul 1995 Typhoon. Southern Korea. Southern coast hit by Typhoon Faye. Winds of 154 mph caused a 140 000-ton oil tanker to run aground off city of Yeosoo, spreading an oil slick over a 50-km area which caused considerable damage to marine life. Jul-Aug 1995 Flooding. North Korea. More than 5 000 000 people affected in Pyongyang. Damage estimated at $15 billion. Sept 1995 Hurricane Ismael. Mexico. Pacific states of Sinaloa and Sonoro hit by Hurricane Ismael. 107 people killed and 52 000 homeless. 20 000 hectares of agricultural land devastated. Oct 1995 Earthquake. Turkey. 6.0 on Richter scale. Hit South Western town of Dinar. 84 people killed and at least 200 injured.
Natural Disasters continued
Oct 1995 Tropical storm. Philippines. Widespread destruction throughout country caused by Tropical Storm Sybil. More than 100 people killed. At end of Oct at least 100 more people killed by Tropical Storm Zack. Oct 1995 Hurricane Opal. USA. 17 people killed by Hurricane Opal in Florida and neighbouring states. Oct 1995 Earthquake. Sumatra, Indonesia. 7.0 on Richter scale. Triggered landslides and killed at least 70 people. About 10 000 buildings destroyed. Oct 1995 Flooding. Vietnam. Severe floods followed torrential rains in central province of Quang Ngai. 85 people killed. 176 000 houses covered by flood waters. Oct 1995 Earthquake. Mexico. 7.6 on Richter scale. 66 people killed, hundreds injured and thousands homeless in western coastal states of Jalisco and Colima. Oct 1995 Earthquake. China. 6.5 on Richter scale. At least 29 people killed and 20 000 homeless in Southwestern Yunan. More than 12 000 buildings collapsed. Dec 1995 Volcanic eruption. Nicaragua. Relief efforts focused on clearing town of Leon (94 999 inhabitants) from ash fall to prevent spread of respiratory diseases, notably among children. Dec 1995-Jan 1996 Flooding. South Africa. At least 147 people killed in Kwazulu-Natal when Umsunduzi River and its main tributary burst their banks following heavy seasonal rains. 4 000-5 000 homeless. Jan 1996 Flooding. Indonesia. Affected 50 600 households. 24 600 people evacuated. 480 seriously injured and 18 killed. Jan 1996 Forest fire. Argentina. Thousands of hectares of ancient forests destroyed in national parks in southern Chebut and Rio Negro provinces. Jan 1996 Snowstorm. USA. Major disruption caused to transport services in northeastern region. At least 59 people killed. Feb 1996 Flooding. USA. Melting snow and heavy rain produced severe flooding in the North Western region. Mudslides blocked roads and 16 000 people forced to flee their homes. At least 3 people killed in Oregon. Feb 1996 Earthquake. China (Yunnan). 7.0 on Richter scale. 322 people killed and about 4 000 seriously injured. 319 600 homeless. 358 000 housing units collapsed. Total economic loss estimated at $47.1 million. Feb 1996 Earthquake. Eastern Indonesia. 7.5 on Richter scale. 108 people killed, over 400 injured and 1 018 houses destroyed. Generated tsunami that hit Irian Jaya. Mar 1996 Cyclone. Madagascar. 100 000-150 000 people affected by Cyclone Bonita. 9 killed. Mar 1996 Avalanche. India (Kashmir). 36 people killed and 27 injured in remote village in Pakistan-ruled part of disputed Kashmir. Mar 1996 Earthquake. Ecuador. 5.7 on Richter scale. 21 people killed, 66 injured and 3 000 homeless in central Ecuador. Apr 1996 Forest fire. Mongolia. 30 000 sq km of forests and 50 000 sq km of pasture destroyed. 8 people killed, 20 injured. May 1996 Earthquake. China. 6.4 on Richter scale. At least 18 people killed and 297 injured. 50 000 buildings damaged or destroyed around city of Baotou, 540km north-west of Beijing. May 1996 Tornado. Northern Bangladesh. More than 600 people killed. Jan 1997 Snowstorms. China. 34 deaths and 100 000 cut off in their homes.
Natural Disasters continued
Jan 1997 Storms. Brazil. 65 people killed and nearly 20 000 homeless in states of Minais Gerais and Rio de Janeiro. Feb 1997 Earthquake. Iran. 965 people killed and more than 2 600 injured in northwest province of Ardabil. Feb 1997 Earthquake. Pakistan. 7.3 on Richter scale. At least 100 people killed in Harnai, Balushistan province. May 1997 Earthquake. Iran. 7.1 on Richter scale. More than 1 600 people killed, 2 200 injured and 50 000 homeless in northeastern province of Khorasan. May 1997 Cyclone. Bangladesh. 112 people killed in coastal areas. May 1997 Earthquake. India. 6.0 on Richter scale. At least 38 people killed and over 1 000 injured in Madhya Pradesh state in central India. May 1997 Tornadoes. Texas, USA. Series of tornadoes killed 27 people, most of them in the town of Jarrell, 40km north of Austin. Jun 1997 Volcanic eruption. Montserrat. Eruption of Soufriere Hills volcano devastated two-thirds of the island. At least 23 people killed. 5 000 evacuated from island. Disaster compounded by huge eruption of Chance’s Peak volcano. Jul 1997 Flooding. Eastern Germany, Poland, Czech Republic. Thousands affected by worst floods in central Europe in 20th century. Heavy rain destroyed vast areas in eastern Germany. Many people homeless after dyke holding back torrential Oder river burst. At least 48 people killed. Jul 1997 Earthquake. Cariaco, Venezuela. 6.9 on Richter scale. At least 59 people killed and 320 injured. Aug 1997 Flooding. India. Heavy rains in northern state of Pradesh led to rivers flooding. At least 135 people killed. Sept 1997 Drought. Papua New Guinea. Nationwide drought affected over 700 000 people. Sept 1997 Earthquakes. Central Italy. Two earthquakes, the most powerful measuring 5.7 on Richter scale. 11 people killed and more than 120 injured. Sept 1997 Cyclone. Bangladesh. At least 47 killed and hundreds injured on islands off south-east coast. Sept 1997 Earthquake. Sulawesi, Indonesia. 6.0 on Richter scale. At least 14 killed and 30 injured. Oct 1997 Hurricane Pauline. Mexico. Acapulco devastated and widespread damage caused to state of Guerro. More than 111 people killed and 8 000 homeless. Oct 1997 Earthquake. Chile. 6.8 on Richter scale. 8 killed, 98 injured, 15 000 left homeless. Nov 1997 Earthquake. Bangladesh. 6.0 on Richter scale. Killed 11 people in port city of Chittagong. Thousands homeless. Jan 1998 Flooding. Peru. 70 people killed and 22 000 homeless. Jan 1998 Storms. Canada. Up to 100mm of freezing rain fell across eastern Ontario and Quebec. Ice load brought down about 1 000 power transmission towers and 30 000 wooden utility poles. Around 3 million people lost electricity and at least 25 people were killed. Over 700 000 insurance claims filed for property damage. Apr 1998 Storms. USA (Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi). 60 people killed. May 1998 Forest fires. Central America. Vast tracts of land destroyed.
Natural Disasters continued
22 May 1998 Earthquakes. Central Bolivia. Series of earthquakes measuring up to 6.8 on Richter scale. At least 100 people killed. 30 May 1998 Earthquake. Northern Afghanistan. 3 000 killed. 27 Jun 1998 Earthquake. Adana, Turkey. More than 120 people killed. 30 Jun-2 Jul 1998 Storms and flooding. USA (Wisconsin, Minnesota, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia, Vermont). More than 20 people killed. 17 Jul 1998 Tidal wave. Papua New Guinea. 10 metres high. Generated by off-shore earthquake. Swept 2 km inland in Aitape district of north coast. At least 2 000 killed. Jul-Aug 1998 Flooding. China. 21 million hectares of land damaged by severe floods following heavy monsoon rainfall. 13 million hectares suffered total crop loss. Extensive damage to road and rail networks. Almost 250 million people affected. 13.4 million relocated. Official death toll: 3 004. More than 5.5 million houses destroyed. A further 12 million homes damaged. 22 Sept 1998 Hurricane Georges. Dominican Republic, Haiti. 300 killed, mostly in floods and landslides. Nov 1998 Hurricane Mitch. Central America. Wind speeds of up to 190 mph (300 km per hour). Widespread devastation of roads, homes and crops. In Honduras, 6 500 people killed, 11 000 reported missing and up to 2 million suffered loss of property. In Nicaragua, 1 000 people killed and 1 900 missing. Also deaths and extensive damage in El Salvador and Guatemala. 2-6 Jan 1999 Snow storm. USA. About 90 people killed as a result of severe storm on the eastern seaboard and in mid-western states. 14 Jan 1999 Landslide. Tacabamba, Peru. 40 killed. Several dozen village homes buried after volcanic activity caused landslide. Jan 1999 Earthquake. Colombia. 6.0 on Richter scale. More than 900 people killed and 250 000 homeless. 11 Feb 1999 Earthquake. Afghanistan (Wardak). 5.5 on Richter scale. 50 killed and more than 500 injured. Over 5 000 buildings destroyed. 23-24 Feb 1999 Avalanches. Austria (Tyrol). Killed 38 people. Tens of thousands of people evacuated from the Alpine region. 29 Mar 1999 Earthquake. India (Uttar Pradesh). 6.8 on Richter scale. At least 110 people killed and hundreds injured in foothills of Himalayas. 3 May 1999 Tornadoes. USA (Oklahoma, Kansas). At least 47 killed and hundreds injured after dozens of tornadoes struck, some of which were 5km wide. Caused extensive property damage. 7 May 1999 Earthquake. Shiraz, Iran. 6.5 on Richter scale. At least 26 people killed and 100 injured. 20 villages damaged. 20 May 1999 Cyclone. Pakistan (Sind). Winds of up to 275 km per hour caused widespread crop damage and submerged thousands of villages. At least 400 deaths. 15 Jun 1999 Earthquake. Southern Mexico. At least 19 people killed. Jul 1999 Flooding. Central and Southern China. Widespread flooding along banks of Yangtze river following weeks of torrential rain. 725 people killed. 5.5 million evacuated. Caused US$8 billion worth of damage. 13 Jul 1999 Landslide. Western Romania. Caused by heavy rains and floods. 13 killed and 23 injured.
Natural Disasters continued
Jul-Aug 1999 Heatwave. USA (Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, New York, Ohio, West Virginia). At least 20 people killed. Agricultural disaster areas declared in 15 states. Losses in West Virginia exceeded $80m. Aug 1999 Typhoon. North & South Korea, Philippines. Typhoon Olga killed more than 165 people and made at least 100 000 homeless. Severe flooding left thousands of hectares of farm land submerged and infrastructure damaged. Aug 1999 Earthquake. Northwestern Turkey. 7.4 on Richter scale. 14 095 people killed, 27 000 injured, 200 000 homeless and more than 72 000 buildings damaged. Sept 1999 Flooding. Central America. 70 people killed and 100 000 homeless in Honduras, Guatemala and Nicaragua. Sept 1999 Hurricane Floyd. USA (Florida, Georgia, Carolina). A storm system the size of Texas brought heavy rains, severe flooding and high winds. Massive mandatory evacuation took place in preparation. 60 people killed. Sept 1999 Earthquake. Greece. 5.9 on Richter scale. More than 120 people killed and 60 000 homeless. Sept 1999 Typhoon. Hong Kong. Winds of up to 150km per hour. One person killed and 494 injured. Caused a cargo ship to sink. Sept 1999 Earthquake. Taiwan. 7.6 on Richter scale. 2 256 people killed, 8 713 injured, 100 000 homeless and 404 000 homes left without water supplies. Temporary power cut throughout island. Most affected were Taichung, Taiwan’s 3rd largest city, and mountain towns of Puli and Tungshi. Sept 1999 Typhoon. Honshu, Japan. At least 26 people killed and 350 injured. 1 million homes left without power. Sept 1999 Earthquake. Oaxaca, Mexico. 7.5 on Richter scale. At least 33 people killed. Oct 1999 Flooding. Mexico. At least 341 people killed and 271 000 homeless. Oct 1999 Cyclones. Orissa, India. Wind speeds of between 200 and 300 km per hour caused widespread destruction. More than 10 000 people killed, 1.5 million homeless and 323 000 hectares of land inundated by tidal wave that followed. Oct-Nov 1999 Floods. Vietnam. At least 470 people died in floods following torrential rainstorms. Nov 1999 Earthquake. Northwestern Turkey. Towns of Düzce, Kaynasli and Bolu devastated. Over 737 people died, 5 000 injured and tens of thousands left homeless. Nov 1999 Flooding. Southern France. Torrential storms caused floods. Killed 31 people. Within 48 hours about 600 litres of water fell per square metre – the average rainfall for a whole year in southern France. 15-18 Dec 1999 Floods and mudslides. Venezuela. Up to 50 000 people killed after flash floods and mudslides struck 150km of coastline. Telecommunications and power supplies collapsed. 26-27 Dec 1999 Storms. France. Hurricane-force winds of over 150km per hour killed 88 people and severely damaged country’s infrastructure. 15 Feb 2000 Tornadoes. USA (Southwestern Georgia). Series of tornadoes killed 22 people and injured 100 in town of Camilla. 27 Feb 2000 Cyclone Steve. Australia (Queensland, Northern Territory). Tropical cyclone Steve caused widespread damage. Two-thirds of the area’s annual rainfall fell in just 36 hours.
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Feb 2000 Flooding. Mozambique, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa. Situation worsened by cyclone Eline hitting Mozambique on 21 February. Limpopo river rose 7 metres. Save and Sabi rivers also swollen. Thousands of people stranded in trees and on rooftops. Infrastructure severely affected; thousands of hectares of farmland washed away; 28 000 ha of crops destroyed; 800 000-1 million people homeless; 30 000 cattle drowned; official total of 640 deaths. In South Africa, 95 killed. Dams overflowed and 60 000 homeless in Botswana. 62 killed in Zimbabwe and 250 000 affected by floods. Feb-Apr 2000 Cyclones. Madagascar. Cyclone Eline in February killed 7 people and left thousands homeless. On 27 February, Cyclone Gloria killed 130, left 10 000 homeless and 12 000 stranded. Cyclone Hudah hit in early April. Widespread cropland devastation. Apr 2000 Drought and forest fires. Ethiopia, Kenya. Widespread crop devastation following 3 years of drought. Hundreds died daily through starvation. 5-10 Apr 2000 Flooding. Hungary, Romania. Flooding along several rivers. In Hungary 230 000 ha of arable land made unusable. In Romania 60 000 ha of agricultural land destroyed and 489 towns and villages cut off. At least 7 people killed. May 2000 Flooding. Indonesia. Severe floods on border of East and West Timor, caused by monsoon rain and tidal surge. At least 148 people killed. About 20 000 homeless. Thousands of tons of harvested crops destroyed. Jan 2001 Earthquake. El Salvador. Over 800 people killed, thousands homeless Jan 2001 Earthquake. India. More than 20 000 people killed and hundreds of thousands homeless in a severe earthquake in the western state of Gujarat. Jan 2001 Earthquake. El Salvador. 7.6 on the Richter scale. At least 844 deaths Jan 2001 Earthquake. India. 7.9 on the Richter scale. Resulted in 13 805 deaths in western India, thousands more injured and devastating damage to property Jan 2001 onwards Flooding. Mozambique. At least 115 fatalities with around 230 000 people displaced Feb 2001 Landslides, flooding and storms. Indonesia. A minimum of 122 fatalities Feb 2001 Earthquake. El Salvador. 6.6 on the Rochter scale. Resulted in at least 315 deaths and 3 400 people being injured May 2001 Landslide. China (Chongqing). At least 74 people died when a landslide destroyed a multi-storey residential building Jun 2001 Earthquake. Peru. An estimated 145 fatalities, including 64 people reported as missing (an unknown number died following a resultant tsunami) Jul 2001 Typhoons. The Philippines, China and Taiwan. An estimated 270 fatalities and widespread displacement Jul-Aug 2001 Flooding. India (Orissa). At least 100 fatalities as a result of heavy monsoon season rains Jul 2001 onwards Heatwave. USA. At least 54 fatalities by the end of July Jul 2001 Typhoon. Taiwan. Mudslides and floods killed more than 70 people and forced nearly 300 000 to abandon their homes Aug 2001 Flooding. Northeastern Iran. At least 240 fatalities Aug-Oct 2001 Flooding. Vietnam (Mekong Delta). At least 322 fatalities, the majority of them children
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Oct 2001 Storms, Tidal Wave. North Korea. At least 110 fatalities with thousands of homes, roads and factories destroyed Oct 2001 Cyclone. Andhra Pradesh, India. An estimated 170 fatalities Oct 2001-Spring 2002 Cold weather. Poland. At least 129 fatalities Nov 2001 Flooding. Algeria. At least 764 people killed and more than 400 injured Winter 2001-2002 Cold weather. Russia. At least 232 fatalities Winter 2001-2002 Wildfires. Australia (New South Wales). Many homes destroyed. Jan 2002 Earthquake. Vanuatu. 7.2 on Richter scale, many buildings were devastated Jan 2002 Storms. Senegal. Much damage inland and many fishermen drowned off the coast Jan 2002 Volcano. Democratic Republic of Congo. Mount Nyiragongo erupted, engulfing the town of Goma and killing more than 40 people Feb 2002 Earthquake. Western Turkey. 6.0 on Richter scale, caused many deaths and much damage Feb 2002 Storms and flooding. Bolivia. The capital was particularly badly hit Mar 2002 Earthquake. Central Asia (Hindu Kush). 7.2 on the Richter scale. Resulted in many deaths Mar 2002 Earthquake. Northern Afghanistan. 6.0 on Richter scale, it caused over 600 deaths Apr 2002 Landslides. Papua New Guinea. Caused several deaths Apr 2002 Earthquake. Northern Afghanistan. 5.8 on Richter scale, causing several deaths Apr 2002 Storms. Bangladesh. More than 50 people killed Apr 2002 Flooding and landslides. Rwanda, Kenya. More than 100 people killed and crops destroyed May 2002 Storms. Bangladesh. More than 350 people killed when the Salahuddin-2, a passenger ferry, sank May 2002 Tropical cyclone. Madagascar. More than 40 people killed and widespread property damage May 2002 Red tide. China. Large areas of sea affected by unnaturally large algae population growth May 2002 Flooding and landslides. Haiti, Jamaica. Over 30 people killed May 2002 Storm. Lake Victoria, Africa. At least 30 dead when a boat capsized Jun 2002 Heatwave. Nigeria. At least 60 people died Jun 2002 Storm. Lake Victoria, Africa. At least 70 dead when a ferry capsized. Jun 2002 Flooding. Southern Russia. Over 100 people drowned in floods Jun 2002 Earthquake. Northern Iran. Over 200 people killed in an earthquake registering 6.8 on the Richter scale Jun 2002 Flooding. India. At least 150 people drowned in floods in Gujarat Jul 2002 Snowstorms. Peru. At least 60 people died, many of them children Jul 2002 Explosion. Ukraine. A coal-mine blast killed 20 miners Jul 2002 Typhoon and mudslides. India, Bangladesh, Nepal. Over 800 people killed Jul 2002 Mudslides. Ecuador. At least 60 people killed
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Aug 2002 Typhoons, mudslides and flooding. China (Hunan), South Korea, Iran. Hundreds of people died Aug 2002 Flooding. Vietnam. Many people killed when the Mekong river flooded Sept 2002 Flooding. Thailand. Many people killed Sept 2002 Storm. Senegal. Almost 2000 people drowned when a ferry capsized Oct 2002 Cold weather. Moscow, Russia. Many people died who could not cope with the sudden drop in temperature Oct 2002 Earthquake. Italy. A school collapsed, killing at least 23 7 and 8 year olds Dec 2002 Cold weather. Warsaw, Poland. Hundreds of people were unable to cope with the cold weather Jan 2003 Flooding and drought. Malawi. Thousands are displaced by floodwaters during a time of severe drought and famine Feb 2003 Storms. Democratic Republic of Congo. At least 2 500 people killed Feb 2003 Earthquake. China (Xinjiang). Over 260 people are killed and 10 000 homes destroyed Mar 2003 Hail storms. India. More than 500 people killed by hail Apr 2003 Earthquake. Western Turkey. Over 5.5 on the Richter scale. More than 100 people killed. Apr 2003 Flooding. Argentina. More than 50 000 people are displaced when rivers rose by 50cm in 12 hours May 2003 Earthquake. Algeria. More than 2 200 people killed near Algiers May 2003 Tornado. Oklahoma, USA. Over $100 million worth of damage Jun 2003 Heatwave. Southern India. Thousands die in temperatures of over 50C Jul 2003 Floods. Southern China. 600 die with half a million homes destroyed. Jul 2003 Forest fires. France, Portugal, Spain, Greece. Serious fires, some thought to be the result of arson, with many people evacuated and some deaths Aug 2003 Heatwave. Europe. Many elderly people die during extremely hot weather; crops are devastated Oct-Nov 2003 Heatwave. USA (California). Droughts and forest fires rage, thousands of homes destroyed Nov 2003 Flooding. Sumatra, Indonesia. The village of Bukit Lawang is practically wiped out and an estimated 200 people killed Dec 2003 Earthquake. Iran. At least 40 000 are killed and a large part of the historic city of Bam destroyed Dec 2003 Storms. Phillippines. Mudslides and stormy seas killed around 270 people Dec 2003 Natural gas explosion. China. 233 killed, thousands taken to hospital or evacuated Jan 2004 Explosion. Algeria. A natural gas plant exploded killing 23 with 74 injured Feb 2004 Drowning. Morecambe Bay, UK. 19 cockle-pickers drowned while working in a notoriously dangerous area of sea with no safety equipment Feb 2004 Drought. Southern Africa. Hundreds of thousands of people in need of food aid Feb 2004 Earthquake. Morocco. Remote areas were devastated with nearly 600 people killed. Many were trapped in villages with rescue missions unable to get to them easily
Manmade Disasters
Dec 1984 Gas Leak. Bhopal, India. Gas leak from pesticide plant. At least 2 000 killed and 220 000 treated for various ailments. Apr 1986 Nuclear Explosion. Chernobyl, Ukraine. A hydrogen explosion caused radioactive debris to be showered 1 500 metres into the air. Operational errors blamed. All Eastern Bloc countries, much of Scandinavia and all of Western Europe except Spain and Portugal are known to have been affected in varying degrees. At least 30 people at Chernobyl died almost immediately from burns or acute radiation sickness. The number of people finally affected will never be known. Nov 1986 River Rhine. Following a fire at a chemical plant over 30 tons of pesticides, fungicides and other chemicals were washed into the river by firemen dousing the flames. Mercury was the main chemical involved. For almost two days none of the governments along the Rhine knew the true nature of the chemicals flowing down Europe’s largest waterway. 200 miles of Upper Rhine practically irrecoverable and it is estimated that it will take 10-30 years to restore it to life. Sept 1987 Radioactive pollution. Goiana, Brazil. Radioactive caesium chloride powder from a cylinder stolen from a hospital radiotherapy unit and sold for scrap found on a rubbish dump. It was handled casually by children and others ignorant of its dangers. Only four people died but this does not take into account longer-term effects from radioactive pollution of area. Mar 1989 Oil slick. Alaska, USA. The tanker “Exxon Valdez” ran aground off Alaska causing massive damage to the coastline, wildlife and habitat. Aug 1989 Oil slick. Liverpool, UK. 156 tonnes of crude oil emptied into the Mersey estuary from a Shell oil pipeline causing a 10-mile slick, killing at least 300 birds and affecting 2 000 others. Sept 1990 Explosion. Kazakhstan. An explosion and fire at a factory making nuclear fuels at Ulba in East Kazakhstan contaminated a large area with highly toxic compounds of beryllian metal. The health of up to 120 000 people potentially at risk. Sept 1990 Gas Explosion. Bangkok, Thailand. 58 people died and 100 were injured when a truck carrying two tanks of liquefied petroleum gas crashed and exploded in the centre of the capital. Early 1991 Oil Slick. Persian Gulf. During the Gulf War Iraqi forces allegedly released 5-10 000 000 barrels of oil into the Gulf creating a vast oil slick affecting 400 miles of coast and endangering both the marine environment and the livelihoods of local fishermen. Early 1991 Oil well fires. Kuwait. 600 oilwells allegedly set on fire by Iraqi troops causing massive air pollution and contamination of agricultural land and water supplies especially in the fertile, well-populated Tigris and Euphrates valleys in Iraq. ‘Black rain’ damaged crops in Iran, Pakistan. Bulgaria and Afghanistan. The final well fire was capped in late 1991. Apr 1991 Oil slick. Genoa, Italy. A Cypriot-registered tanker “Haven” exploded during a routine pumping operation in the Ligurian Sea off Genoa. The resulting oil slick caused pollution along the Mediterranean coast westwards towards Nice. The 40 km slick was broken up by gale-force winds which diminished damage potential. Jun 1991 Pollution. Chile. The government ordered 40% of all cars off the streets in the capital. Santiago, one of the most polluted cities in the world. At least 1 465 children had been treated for breathing problems by 10 June.
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Jul 1991 Oil slick. USA (Washington State). After a collision with a Chinese ship, a Japanese fish-processing ship sank, disccharging 100 000 gallons of oil into the sea creating a slick threatening the Olympia National Park. Hundreds of birds were killed and rare species such as the bald eagle, peregrine falcon and sea otter endangered. Aug 1991 Pesticide spill. USA (California). A tanker rail car spilled 19 500 gallons of metam sodium pesticide into the Sacramento River. It drifted 45 miles downstream, killing wild life. 200 people were admitted to hospital suffering from fume inhalation and skin irritation. Dec 1991 Nuclear accidents. Russia. The then environment minister, Victor DanilovDaniliyan, admitted that large parts of Russian territory had been made uninhabitable for decades to come by nuclear accidents and waste. Jan 1992 Pollution. Athens, Greece. When smog in the capital exceeded emergency levels, the government banned all cars from the centre, industrial production was cut and central heating was turned off in public buildings except hospitals. Jan 1992 Water pollution. Turkey, Greece. Hundreds of dead or dying dolphins were washed up on beaches, the victims of a virus linked with water pollution. The rare monk seal, of which only about 300 remain, is also at risk. Dec 1992 Oil slick. Spain. A Greek-owned oil tanker ran aground and exploded off the northwestern Spanish port of La Coruna, spilling an estimated 70 000 tonnes of oil into the sea, with serious ecological consequences. Strong winds and heavy seas helped disperse much of the oil. Jan 1993 Ozone layer. World. NASA research showed ozone levels lower than ever before. Levels were measured up to 14% below normal in the mid-latitudes of the northern hemisphere. In the second half of 1992, ozone levels were 2-3% lower than in any previous year. Global thinning of the ozone layer means a widespread threat to human health. Jan 1993 Oil slick. Malaysia. A supertanker fully laden with almost 2 million barrels of crude oil collided with another tanker and started spilling oil into the sea off the northern tip of Sumatra. Jan 1993 Oil slick. Shetland Islands, UK. The oil tanker “Braer”, carrying 84 000 tonnes of light crude oil, was driven ashore. Less damage than originally feared as hurricane winds were effective in breaking down and dispersing the spill. Salmon farms, fisheries and wildlife adversely affected. Apr 1993 Radioactive explosion. Tomsk, Russia. Explosion at the Tomsk-7 nuclear reprocessing plant released a cloud of radioactive gas over western Siberia. Reported to have contaminated 120 sq km of forest, although official reports claimed the amount of plutonium released was negligible. Summer 1993 Toxic algae. Europe. Toxic green algae choked parts of the Mediterranean. Clumps of the weed, which grows following the pollution of the sea by chemicals that fertilize the water, stretched over 4.2 sq km. There were colonies as far apart as Majorca and Livorno, on the Italian coast. Holidaymakers in France, Spain and Italy were warned not to uproot it. Feb 1994 Oil slick. Russia (Komi Republic). Oil spill polluted wide areas of tundra. Estimates of the leak from the 47km-long pipeline ranged from 14 000 to 200 000 barrels. It was initially contained by an earth dam but this was breached by heavy rains in August.
Manmade Disasters continued
Jun 1994 Oil slick. South Africa. Large oil slicks covered 16km of beaches near Cape Town. Many seabirds including an estimated 10 000 rare Jakass penguin chicks were killed. The crude oil is thought to have come from a Spanish supertanker that caught fire and sank 60 km off Cape Town in 1983. Oct 1994 Oil slick. Portugal. The tanker Cercal hit rocks off Oporto and spilled up to 1 300 tonnes of crude oil, which washed ashore on Portugal’s northern beaches. Oct 1994 Oil slick. UK. A Russian fish factory ship, the “Pionersk”, carrying 550 tonnes of diesel and fuel, ran aground on rocks south of Lerwick off the coast of Shetland. A 1.6km line of oil was reported stretching southwards from the ship. Early 1995 Oil slick. Russia. A damaged pipeline leaked 3 500 tonnes of crude oil near the Siberian town of Tulun. The spill spread over the frozen Kurzanka River, which feeds into the Bratsk reservoir, an important source of fresh water and hydroelectricity for the whole region. Summer 1995 Pollution. Athens, Greece. A morning-to-evening ban on cars was imposed on the centre of the city for three months to alleviate the severe pollution. Jul 1995 Fuel spillage. Australia. Ore-carrying vessel ran aground off north coast of Tasmania, spilling over 300 tonnes of fuel. At least 8km of shoreline to east of Tamar river reported to have been polluted. Jul 1995 Chemical spillage. UK. An estimated 20 tonnes of toxic acid spilled from a chemicals factory into a stream, feeding the Cuckmere River, near Hailsham, East Sussex. As the acid evaporated it left a 0.8km stretch of the stream completely lifeless. Hundreds of fish were killed. Aug 1995 Chemical spillage. Guyana. Large area along Esseqibo river declared a disaster area after more than 4 000 000 cubic metres of cyanide-contaminated slurry seeped out from a gold mine at Omai into a tributary upstream. Feb 1996 Oil slick. UK. The tanker “Sea Empress”, carrying about 128 000 tonnes of light crude oil, ran aground near Milford Haven, SW Wales (an area of major wildlife significance). 72 000 tonnes of oil were spilt into the sea, most of it during the course of efforts to refloat the tanker and transfer its cargo to other vessels. Apr 1996 Coral damage. Egypt. The cruise liner “Royal Viking Sun” hit and damaged the protected Red Sea coral reef off the Egyptian coast. Nov 1996 Oil slick. UK. 4 000 leaking bottles of suntan oil contaminated Camarthen beach in the Bristol Channel after being lost from a container ship. May 1997 Chemical spillage. UK. Thousands of fish killed by contamination of Medway estuary in Kent. Jul 1997 Oil spillage. Japan. State of emergency declared after oil supertanker “Diamond Grace” ran aground in Tokyo Bay. Aug-Sept 1997 Forest fire. South-East Asia. Thousands of forest fires generated a giant smog cloud covering countries from Malaysia and Indonesia to the Philippines, Brunei and Thailand. Despite warnings of a prolonged dry season, fires were lit as a cheap and convenient means of clearing land. Health of tens of millions of people jeopardised; long-term effects of smoke inhalation may be devastating. Jan 1998 Industrial contamination. Grand Canal, Eastern China. A 40km stretch of canal was contaminated by industrial waste, mostly from paper mills. Jan 1998 Oil slick. UAE. Barge ran aground, spilling thousands of tonnes of oil which affected over 80km of coastline.
Manmade Disasters continued
Apr 1998 Toxic waste. Aznalcóllar, Spain. Toxic waste from a mine flooded 40km of the River Guadimar in Doñana national park. Caused widespread loss of wildlife and natural habitats. 1999 Toxic weaponry. Yugoslavia. In March 2000, NATO admitted to widespread use of depleted uranium (DU) weapons during 1999 bombing campaign. DU shells were used routinely throughout Kosovo in about 100 missions. Each mission might have used between 10kg and 100kg of DU, which amounted to a ‘toxicity risk’. Jan 2000 Chemical spillage. Northern Romania. 100 000 tonnes of sludge contaminated by cyanide and heavy metals spilled over a dam at a gold mine in Baia Mare. Polluted the Somes river, which then carried pollution to the Tisza river in Hungary and the Danube. By 15 February more than 100 tonnes of dead fish had been recovered from the rivers. Environmentalists warned of serious long-term effects of heavy metals on the river system. Sept 2000 Ozone layer. Antarctica. NASA reported the largest ozone hole ever seen over Antarctica, covering 11 million square miles (three times larger than the area of the USA) and stretching to the southern tip of South America. It is evidence that ozone-destroying chemicals continue to increase in the stratosphere, where the hole forms. Although production of these chemicals has been reduced by international agreement, they remain in the atmosphere and will continue to do so for years. Jan 2001 Oil slick. Galapagos Islands. An ecological disaster was narrowly averted when a ship laden with oil ran aground on the Galapagos Islands. Feb 2001 Train crash. Selby, UK. Ten people killed when their train collided with a goods train Mar 2001 Train crash. Belgium. 8 people are killed in a head-on collision Jul 2001 Plane crash. Siberia. 143 are killed in a Russian plane headed to Vladivostock 11 Sept 2001 Plane crash. USA. Terrorists hijacked 2 planes and crashed them into the World Trade Centre in New York, a 3rd into the Pentagon and a 4th outside Pittsburgh. Over 3 000 people were killed Oct 2001 Plane crash. Milan, Italy. Two planes crashed on a runway in heavy fog killing 118 Nov 2001 Plane crash. New York, USA. A plane crashed just after take-off, killing all 260 people on board. Jan 2002 Pollution. Cornwall, UK Oil tanker “Willy” grounded with the possibility of explosion Jan 2002 Pollution. Djibouti. Shipment of pesticide leaking in port Jan 2002 Pollution. Australia (Queensland). Water contaminated with uranium leaking into aquifers Jan 2002 Pollution. Thailand. Huge oil slick from grounded tanker Feb 2002 Pollution. Spain. Tonnes of oil leaked into the Ebro river Feb 2002 Train crash. Cairo, Egypt. At least 300 killed in fire on train Spring 2002 Pollution. USA. Huge oil slick appeared off the coast of California, and traced to an old wreck Apr 2002 Pollution. USA. Coal waste spilled into rivers in Kentucky Apr 2002 Pollution. Pacific Ocean. An abandoned oil tanker leaked oil near mid-ocean atolls
Manmade Disasters continued
May 2002 Train crash. Potter’s Bar, UK Seven people were killed and dozens more injured when a train derailed and smashed into a station May 2002 Pollution. Brazil. Crude oil leaked into Ilha Grande harbour Jun 2002 Train crash. Dodoma, Tanzania. At least 200 killed in a head-on train collision Jul 2002 Pollution. Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. Radioactive waste leaked into the Maylisu River Jul 2002 Pollution. Australia. A tanker carrying diesel oil and fuel oil ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef Aug 2002 Pollution. Romania. Crude oil flowed into the Prahova River, a tributary of the Danube Aug 2002 Pollution. Nigeria. Oil pipeline ruptured in the Niger River delta Sept 2002 Ferry sinking. Senegal. The state-run ferry, the Joola, sank off the coast of Gambia killing around 1 000 Sept 2002 Pollution. Australia. Oil run into the Maribyrnong River, near Melbourne Oct 2002 Building collapse. Syria. Several people killed when a building collapsed in Aleppo Nov 2002 Pollution. Spain, France. Oil tanker “Prestige” sank off Galicia, spilling more than 60 000 tonnes of oil and devastating local wildlife Nov 2002 Explosion. Bali, Indonesia. A bomb in the holiday resort of Kuta killed at least 190, most of whom were tourists Dec 2002 Pollution. Falkland Islands. Many penguins killed by an oil slick Jan 2003 Pollution. Saigon River, Vietnam. Tanker damaged in a collision Jan 2003 Plane crash. Turkey. 76 killed when the plane lost control coming in to land Jan 2003 Train crash. New South Wales, Australia. A train derailed, possibly sabotaged, near Sydney killing 8. Feb 2003 Fire. Korea. At least 125 people died in a deliberate fire set on the subway in Daegu Feb 2003 Pollution. Pacific Ocean. Oil contaminated the sea round Midway Atoll after a pipeline valve broke Feb 2003 Plane crash. Iran. All 276 people on board are killed Feb 2003 Pollution. Nigeria. An old oil well exploded in the Niger Delta Feb 2003 Space shuttle Columbia broke up on re-entry killing the 7 astronauts on board Mar 2003 Pollution. Australia. A ruptured pipeline contaminated beaches near Brisbane Mar 2003 Pollution. UK Seabirds covered with oil found on the Devon coast which had probably been dumped into the English Channel Apr 2003 Ferry crash. Bangladesh. 2 separate ferries capsized in the same storm, killing more than 150 people with hundreds more unaccounted for May 2003 Plane crash. Democratic Republic of Congo. The rear ramp of the plane came loose sucking out the 120 passengers and crew
Manmade Disasters continued
May 2003 Earthquake. Turkey. 6.4. on Richter scale. A school dormitory collapsed, killing more than 80 children. May 2003 Train crash. Hungary. 33 were killed when a train hit a coach at a level crossing Jun 2003 Chemical fire. Nigeria. A fuel line split and burst into flames while local people were trying to collect the spilling fuel. Over 120 died Jun 2003 Train crash. Spain. At least 19 people died when a passenger train hit a freight train Jul 2003 Plane crash. Sudan. 115 passengers were killed with only one survivor, a small child Jul 2003 Pollution. India. Oil tanker MV Tasman Spirit ran aground discharging more than 30 000 tonnes of oil onto beaches near Karachi. Oct 2003 Ferry crash. New York, USA. A passenger ferry crashed into Staten Island Pier killing 10 and injuring a further 34 Dec 2003 Plane crash. Benin. 135 people killed on Christmas Day en route to Lebanon Jan 2004 Plane crash. Uzbekistan. A passenger plane crashed killing all 37 people on board Jan 2004 Plane crash. Red Sea. All 141 passengers are killed on board an Egyptian charter flight. Feb 2004 Train crash. Nayshabur, Iran. Carriages packed with volatile chemicals and fuel crashed leaving at least 295 dead, hundreds injured. Feb 2004 Plane crash. United Arab Emirates. An Iranian plane crashed killing 40 people