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_Handbook of Water and Wastewater Microbiology_ _Edited by Duncan Mara and Nigel Horan, School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, UK_ _Copyright © 2003 Elsevier All rights reserved._ _No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher._ _Academic Press An Imprint of Elsevier 84 Theobald’s Road, London WC1X 8RR, UK http://www.academicpress.com _Academic Press An Imprint of Elsevier 525 B Street, Suite 1900 San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA http://www.academicpress.com ISBN 0-12-470100-0 Library of Congress Catalog Number: 2002114097 British Library Cataloguing in publication data Handbook of water and wastewater microbiology 628.106 ISBN 0-12-470100-0 Contents Contributors vii Preface ix PART 1: BASIC MICROBIOLOGY 1 Microbial nutrition and basic metabolism E C S Chan Introduction to microbes of sanitary importance 2 Viruses John Heritage 37 3 Bacteria Edward D Schroeder and Stefan Wuertz 57 4 Protozoa Nigel Horan 69 5 Filamentous fungi in water systems Graham Kinsey, Russell Paterson and Joan Kelley 77 6 Microbial flora of the gut B S Drasar 99 7 Faecal indicator organisms Duncan Mara 105 8 Detection, enumeration and identification of environmental microorganisms of public health significance Howard Kator and Martha Rhodes 113 9 Fundamentals of biological behaviour and wastewater strength tests M C Wentzel, George A Ekama and R E Loewenthal 145 PART 2: WATER AND EXCRETA-RELATED DISEASES 10 Microorganisms and disease R Morris 177 11 Unitary environmental classification of waterand excreta-related communicable diseases Duncan Mara and R G A Feachem 185 12 Emerging waterborne pathogens Debra Huffman, Walter Quintero-Betancourt and Joan Rose 193 13 Health effects of water consumption and water quality Pierre Payment 209 14 Drinking-water standards for the developing world Jamie Bartram, Guy Howard 221 PART 3: MICROBIOLOGY OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT Introduction to microbiological wastewater treatment 19 Fixed film processes Paul Lessard and Yann LeBihan 317 20 Biofilm formation and its role in fixed film processes Luís F Melo 337 21 Suspended growth processes Nigel Horan 351 22 Protozoa as indicators of wastewater treatment efficiency Paolo Madoni 361 23 The microbiology of phosphorus removal in activated sludge T E Cloete, M M Ehlers, J van Heerden and B Atkinson 373 24 Anaerobic treatment processes G K Anderson, P J Sallis and S Uyanik 391 25 The Nitrogen cycle and its application in wastewater treatment Cien Hiet Wong, Geoff W Barton and John P Barford 427 26 Low-cost treatment systems Duncan Mara 441 27 Microbial interactions in facultative and maturation ponds Howard Pearson 449 28 Sulphate-reducing bacteria Oliver J Hao 459 Behaviour of pathogens in wastewater treatment processes 29 Viruses in faeces John Oragui 473 30 Bacterial pathogen removal from wastewater treatment plants Tom Curtis 477 31 Fate and behaviour of parasites in wastewater treatment systems Rebecca Stott 491 PART 4: DRINKING WATER MICROBIOLOGY 36 Surface waters Huw Taylor 611 37 Stored water (rainjars and raintanks) John Pinfold 627 38 Coagulation and filtration Caroline S Fitzpatrick and John Gregory 633 39 Microbial response to disinfectants Jordi Morato, Jaume Mir, Francisc Codony, Jordi Mas and Ferran Ribas 657 40 Giardia and Cryptosporidium in water and wastewater H V Smith and A M Grimason 695 41 Biofilms in water distribution systems Charmain J Kerr, Keith S Osborn, Alex H Rickard, Geoff D Robson and Pauline S Handley 757 42 Taste and odour problems in potable water Esther Ortenberg and Benjamin Teltsch 777 Useless Websites Sources of heavy metals in wastewater Industrial waste contains pollutants that may preclude the use of excess activated sludge, derived from industrial waste treatment, as an agricultural fertilizer. Recent legislative changes have considerably reduced the options available for the disposal of solid waste from biological treatment plants (McCann, 1998). Consequently, it is now more economically favourable to recycle organic wastes to land. Heavy metals may gain entry into waste streams from a variety of sources. The presence of metals in some dyestuffs is well known, but these contaminants may also be present on the raw materials and as a contaminant of other process auxiliary chemicals, where it has been involved in the compound’s synthesis (Charlton, 1999). The effluent from cotton wet processing typically has a highly alkaline pH. This must be lowered to a pH value generally between 6 and 8 before the effluent is processed by aerobic biological treatment. Heavy metals are present in wastewater from industrial and domestic sources. Concentrated highly contaminated wastes can be found in wastes from metal processing industries such as electroplating, chemical works, textile wet processing, tanneries, photographic industries and mining may also produce wastes with a significant metal content. Sources of heavy metals in domestic waste may come from metal piping (lead and copper), galvanic corrosion (zinc), cosmetics and household cleaning agents. Surface water runoff from roads and fire water may also contribute to the metal load on a wastewater treatment plant when water from these sources enters the sewer. The effect of heavy metals on biological treatment processes Cu2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Ni2+, Zn2? and Cr6? are known to inhibit anaerobic digestion (Lin, 1992; Mueller and Steiner, 1992). The relative degree of anaerobic inhibition in a municipal sludge has been found to be: Ni2+ > Cu2+ > Cd2+ > Cr6+ > Pb2+. Decreasing anaerobic inhibition The toxicity of the metal is directly related to its solubility in the presence of the sludge. If the affinity of the metal for the sludge is high then the toxicity is reduced (Mueller and Steiner, 1992). Metal toxicity in such systems may be reduced by precipitating the metal out of solution as the insoluble sulphide or hydroxide, etc. Metals such as Ni, Co and Mo, however, are known to promote anaerobic digestion (Shonheit et al., 1979; Whitman and Wolfe, 1980; Murray and van den Berg, 1981; Bitton, 1994). Toxicity is expressed as ‘inhibition of respiratory activity of microorganisms’ present in the activated sludge’. Cr3+ and Cr6+ were used in a study in order to determine their effect on the activated sludge. Oxygen concentration and biological oxygen demand were measured as an indication of inhibition in the presence of the metal. Exposure times and activated sludge biosolids concentration was examined and their effect on EC50 recorded. The 1-hour EC50 for Cr6+ was found to be 40 – 90 mg/l. This effect was not observed for Cr3+ alone, only the combined effect of the two ions (Vankova et al., 1999). In another study, the three metal ions Cu2+, Zn2? and Ni2? were found to inhibit b-glucosidase enzyme activity. The pH and buffer type were investigated and were found to have considerable effect on the enzyme activity. Under optimal conditions, a metal concentration of 0.6 mM and a pH of 5, the presence of Zn and Ni decreased the enzyme activity by 25 to 30%, whereas Cu reduced it by more than 90%. The citrate buffer was not inhibited at all, even at the higher Cu concentrations. The inhibition by the Zn and Ni was found to be less pH dependent – range 4 to 5.5. Chemical speciation models were used to describe inhibition by buffer and pH for all three metals. Here it was assumed that the enzyme activity depended on protonation of the amino acid at the reactive site complexation by the heavy metal cation (Geiger et al., 1999). In natural unpolluted environments, heavy metals are present in trace concentrations. The most abundant may have a metabolic function. The inability of most living organisms to cope with the toxic effects of heavy metals is due to lack of evolutionary selection pressures to develop these mechanisms. Some fungi have shown toxic effects to heavy metals. An example here is the thermochemical study of some heavy metals. Thermogenetic growth curves of Rhizopus nigricans have shown how a variety of metals have inhibited growth rate constants and inhibitory ratios, although low Cu concentrations promote these properties. The method of analysis, microcalorimetric analysis bioassay, for acute cellular toxicity is based on metabolic heat evolution from cultured cells (Cheng Nong et al., 1999). Here the effect of heavy metals in activated sludge was examined when used as a food supplement in Wister rats. The toxic effect of heavy metals as contaminants from sludgesupplemented diets on male Wistar rats has been studied (Bag et al., 1999). Poultry and cattle feed was supplemented with activated sludge as it is well known that it is high in nitrogenous matter and is inexpensive. 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