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This page intentionally left blank Ecology of Cities and Towns A Comparative Approach The unprecedented growth of cities and towns around the world coupled with the unknown future effects of global change has created an urgent need to increase ecological understanding of human settlements in order to develop inhabitable, sustainable cities and towns in the future. Although there is a wealth of knowledge regarding the understanding of human organization and behavior there is comparatively little information available regarding the ecology of cities and towns. This book brings together leading scientists, landscape designers and planners from developed and developing countries around the world to explore how urban ecological research has been undertaken to date what has been learnt where there are gaps in knowledge and what the future challenges and opportunities are. Mark J. McDonnell is the Director of the Australian Research Centre for Urban Ecology at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Melbourne and an Associate Professor in the School of Botany at the University of Melbourne. Amy K. Hahs is a GIS ecologist at the Australian Research Centre for Urban Ecology at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Melbourne and a Research Fellow in the School of Botany at the University of Melbourne. Juergen H. Breuste is a Professor of Geography in the Department of Geography and Geology at the University of Salzburg in Austria. Ecology of Cities and Towns A Comparative Approach Edited by Mark J. McDonnell Australian Research Centre for Urban Ecology, Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne c/o School of Botany The University of Melbourne VIC 3010 Australia Amy K. Hahs Australian Research Centre for Urban Ecology, Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne c/o School of Botany The University of Melbourne VIC 3010 Australia Juergen H. Breuste Research Group Urban Ecology Department of Geography and Geology University of Salzburg A-5020 Salzburg Austria CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge New York Melbourne Madrid Cape Town Singapore Sao Paulo Delhi Dubai Tokyo Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org 9780521861120 © Cambridge University Press 2009 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2009 ISBN-13: 978-0-511-65079-6 (eBook - NetLibrary) ISBN-13: 978-0-521-86112-0 (Hardback) ISBN-13: 978-0-521-67833-9 (Paperback) Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. This book is dedicated to the memory of Katarina (Nina) Loefvenhaft colleague and friend. Contents List of contributors xii Preface xix 1 Introduction: Scope of the book and need for developing a comparative approach to the ecological study of cities and towns 1 Mark J. McDonnell, Juergen H. Breuste and Amy K. Hahs Part I Opportunities and challenges of conducting comparative studies 7 2 Comparative urban ecology: challenges and possibilities 9 Jari Niemela, D. Johan Kotze and Vesa Yli-Pelkonen 3 Frameworks for urban ecosystem studies: gradients, patch dynamics and the human ecosystem in the New York metropolitan area and Baltimore, USA 25 Steward T. A. Pickett, Mary L. Cadenasso, Mark J. McDonnell and William R. Burch Jr 4 Comparative effects of urbanisation in marine and terrestrial habitats 51 M. G. Chapman and A. J. Underwood 5 Comparative ecology of cities and towns: past, present and future 71 Mark J. McDonnell and Amy K. Hahs vi Contents 6 Comparative urban ecological research in developing countries 90 Sarel Cilliers, Henk Bouwman and Ernst Drewes 7 Using models to compare the ecology of cities 112 Michael McCarthy Part II Ecological studies of cities and towns 127 8 Responses of faunal assemblages to urbanisation: global research paradigms and an avian case study 129 Carla P. Catterall 9 Effect of urban structures on diversity of marine species 156 M. G. Chapman, David Blockley, Julie People and Brianna Clynick 10 Comparative studies of terrestrial vertebrates in urban areas 177 Charles Nilon 11 The ecology of roads in urban and urbanising landscapes 185 Rodney van der Ree 12 Spatial pattern and process in urban animal communities 197 Yosihiro Natuhara and Hiroshi Hashimoto 13 Invertebrate biodiversity in urban landscapes: assessing remnant habitat and its restoration 215 Dieter F. Hochuli, Fiona J. Christie and Boris Lomov 14 Arthropods in urban ecosystems: community patterns as functions of anthropogenic land use 233 Nancy E. McIntyre and Jessamy J. Rango 15 Light pollution and the impact of artificial night lighting on insects 243 Gerhard Eisenbeis and Andreas Haanel vii Contents 16 A comparison of vegetation cover in Beijing and Shanghai: a remote sensing approach 264 Jun Yang and Zhou Jinxing 17 Vegetation composition and structure of forest patches along urban-rural gradients 274 Wayne C. Zipperer and Glenn R. Guntenspergen 18 Environmental, social and spatial determinants of urban arboreal character in Auckland, New Zealand 287 Colin D. Meurk, Nadya Zvyagna, Rhys O. Gardner, Guy Forrester, Mike Wilcox, Graeme Hall, Heather North, Stella Belliss, Kathryn Whaley, Bill Sykes, Jerry Cooper and Kathryn O'Halloran 19 Carbon and nitrogen cycling in soils of remnant forests along urban-rural gradients: case studies in the New York metropolitan area and Louisville, Kentucky 308 Margaret M. Carreiro, Richard V. Pouyat, Christopher E. Tripler and Wei-Xing Zhu 20 Investigative approaches to urban biogeochemical cycles: New York metropolitan area and Baltimore as case studies 329 Richard V. Pouyat, Margaret M. Carreiro, Peter M. Groffman and Mitchell A. Pavao-Zuckerman Part III Integrating science with management and planning 353 21 Structural analysis of urban landscapes for landscape management in German cities 355 Juergen H. Breuste 22 Preservation of original natural vegetation in urban areas: an overview 380 Clas Florgaard 23 Homogeneity of urban biotopes and similarity of landscape design language in former colonial cities 399 Maria E. Ignatieva and Glenn H. Stewart 24 Tools to assess human impact on biotope resilience and biodiversity in urban planning: examples from Stockholm, Sweden 422 Katarina Loefvenhaft viii Contents 25 Landscape ecological analysis and assessment in an urbanising environment 439 Ulla Mortberg 26 Applying landscape ecological principles to a fascinating landscape: the city 456 Robbert Snep, Wim Timmermans and Robert Kwak 27 A trans-disciplinary research approach providing a platform for improved urban design, quality of life and biodiverse urban ecosystems 470 Charles T. Eason, Jennifer E. Dixon and Marjorie R. van Roon 28 Pattern:process metaphors for metropolitan landscapes 484 Laura R. Musacchio 29 Valuing urban wetlands: modification, preservation and restoration 503 Glenn R. Guntenspergen, Andrew H. Baldwin, Dianna M. Hogan, Hilary A. Neckles and Martha G. Nielsen Part IV Comments and synthesis 521 30 What is the main object of urban ecology? Determining demarcation using the example of research into urban flora 523 Ruediger Wittig 31 How to conduct comparative urban ecological research 530 Susanna Lehvavirta and D. Johan Kotze 32 Ecological scientific knowledge in urban and land-use planning 549 Kristina L. Nilsson and Clas Florgaard 33 Envisioning further steps in comparative urban ecology 557 Orie Loucks 34 Towards a comparative ecology of cities and towns 567 Kirsten Parris 35 A comparative ecology of cities and towns: synthesis of opportunities and limitations 574 Amy K. Hahs, Mark J. McDonnell and Juergen H. Breuste Contents ix References 597 Index 700 The colour plates are situated between pages 362 and 363 List of contributors Andrew H. Baldwin Department of Environmental Science and Technology University of Maryland College Park MD 20742 USA Stella Belliss Landcare Research PO Box 40 Lincoln 7640 New Zealand David Blockley Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities University of Sydney NSW 2006 Australia Henk Bouwman School of Environmental Sciences and Development North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) Private Bag X6001 Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa Juergen H. Breuste Research Group Urban Ecology Department for Geography and Geology University of Salzburg A-5020 Salzburg Austria William R. Burch, Jr Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies New Haven CT 06511 USA Mary L. Cadenasso Department of Plant Sciences University of California Davis CA 95616 USA Margaret M. Carreiro Department of Biology University of Louisville Louisville KY 40292 USA Carla P. Catterall Environmental Sciences Griffith University Nathan Qld 4111 Australia xii List of contributors xiii M. G. Chapman Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities University of Sydney NSW 2006 Australia Fiona J. Christie School of Forest and Ecosystem Science The University of Melbourne Creswick VIC 3363 Australia Sarel Cilliers School of Environmental Sciences and Development North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) Private Bag X6001 Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa Brianna Clynick Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities University of Sydney NSW 2006 Australia Jerry Cooper Landcare Research PO Box 40 Lincoln 7640 New Zealand Jennifer E. Dixon School of Architecture and Planning The University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand Ernst Drewes School of Environmental Sciences and Development North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) Private Bag X6001 Potchefstroom 2520 South Africa Ключевые слова: e, r, o