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_'Heavy Metals in the Environment', edited by Bibudhendra Sarkar. The Hospital for Sick Children and University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York • Basel. ISBN: 0-8247-0630-7. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Headquarters: Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 tel: 212-696-9000; fax: 212-685-4540. Eastern Hemisphere Distribution: Marcel Dekker AG Hutgasse 4, Postfach 812, CH-4001 Basel, Switzerland tel: 41-61-261-8482; fax: 41-61-261-8896. World Wide Web: http://www.dekker.com. The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales Professional Marketing at the headquarters address above. Copyright © 2002 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Current printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Preface: Our global environment now consists of numerous natural and artificial metals. Metals have played a critical role in industrial development and technological advances. Most metals are not destroyed; indeed, they are accumulating at an accelerated pace due to the ever-growing demands of modern society. A fine balance must be maintained between metals in the environment and human health. This book has been written to address diverse issues surrounding heavy metals in the environment. Nineteen chapters have been contributed by 50 experts from around the world, known for their expertise and outstanding research. The book provides a critical review and analysis of the current state of knowledge of heavy metals in the environment. The volume begins with a chapter on the essentiality and toxicity of metals. The widespread distribution of metals in the environment is of great concern because of their toxic properties; however, some metals are also essential for normal growth and development. This chapter provides a critical assessment of nutritional and toxicological information based on available data on humans. The evaluation has used information available on speciation and bioavailability to identify the critical effects and clinical manifestations of metal deficiency and toxicity. New principles and basic concepts are presented to define the acceptable range of oral intake (AROI) at which no adverse effects occur, and the corresponding safe range of population mean intake (SRPMI) of essential trace metals such as selenium, iron, manganese, zinc, and copper. The interdependence of various elements is discussed with regard to metabolic and functional interactions involving storage and metabolism. Analytical measurements of heavy metals in the environment are an integral component of monitoring and assessing their toxic effects. They are required for regulatory purposes and routine monitoring to ensure compliance with allowed levels to determine hazardous conditions. Clean-ups of contaminated locations are commenced on the basis of measurements indicating the site and extent of contamination. Chapter 2, on analytical methods for quantitative determination of heavy metals discusses various analytical tools and speciation analyses of heavy metals as well as their microscopic analyses. Techniques used for speciation analyses are discussed for individual metals such as chromium, arsenic, mercury, lead, and cadmium. This chapter also describes recent developments in the use of microprobe beamline to monitor intracellular distribution of elements in a single cell. The need to develop and establish new toxicological approaches to assess the potential cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of heavy metals in the environment is addressed in Chapter 3, which focuses on a variety of in vitro toxicological screening methods for the biomonitoring of heavy metals. These methods take advantage of intracellular effects of metals to induce the expression of detoxifying proteins, other protective proteins, and proteins involved in cell cycles and proliferation and apoptosis. Suggestions are made as to the future of heavy metal biomarker research and how it can be more carefully monitored in the human environment. A large spectrum of radionuclides was produced after the creation of the cosmos. Their radioactive half-lives are very long, and they remain ubiquitous components of the environment. Additionally, as a result of the development of nuclear weapons and nuclear technology, a number of artificial radionuclides have become a part of the human environment. Chapter 4 discusses the distribution and concentration of both natural and man-made radionuclides and the mechanism of their transfer to plants, animals, and humans. Possible long-term effects of their distribution in human tissue in terms of health implications are discussed. Metallic agents, as a class, make up a substantial portion of known human carcinogens. Chapter 5 reviews the topic of metal carcinogenesis, following the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classification system, with particular emphasis on known human carcinogens. In recent years, both carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic potential of arsenic have been intensely studied. Chapters 6 and 7 review the global perspective on arsenic in the environment and aspects of arsenic toxicity. Chapter 6 explores the environmental behavior of arsenic with special reference to the abundance and distribution of arsenic in the lithosphere, sediments, soil environment, and groundwater. It also discusses various pathways of arsenic emission into the environment, methods for arsenic determination in drinking water, and techniques for remediation of arsenic-contaminated soil and groundwater systems. Chapter 7 discusses the sources of human exposure and aspects of human toxicology with special emphasis on chronic arsenic poisoning and its general effects related to dermatological manifestations, cardiovascular diseases, neurological impairments, and cancer effects. Individual chapters are devoted to selected metals in the environment, including cadmium, chromium, aluminum, nickel, lead, mercury, and molybdenum. Chapter 8 reviews the pertinent literature of cadmium toxicology, with discussions of the health effects in humans of cadmium exposure and the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects. The connection between inhalation of chromium (VI) compounds and the causation of cancers of the airways and lungs is well established. Chapter 9 describes epidemiological studies along with the toxicokinetics and molecular mechanisms underlying the carcinogenicity of chromium (VI). It is followed by an in-depth consideration of approaches to the biological monitoring of chromium (VI)-exposed subjects. Chapter 10 presents an assessment of the hazards of aluminum exposure to humans, animals, and plants. Chapter 11, on nickel, reviews its distributions in the environment, human exposure, metabolism, systemic and molecular toxicology, and carcinogenesis. This chapter also includes a discussion on the interaction of nickel with other essential metals such as magnesium, calcium, iron, zinc, and manganese. Chapter 12 discusses the release of lead in the environment, human body burdens, and the population at risk. Special emphasis is given to analytical methods for the assessment of lead exposure and its metabolism, treatment of lead poisoning, in vitro and animal studies, molecular mechanisms, reproductive outcome, risk assessment and human epidemiological studies. It is believed that the global cycling of mercury from natural and anthropogenic sources is responsible for the transport and deposition of mercury in areas remote from the original source. Chapter 13 takes a detailed look at mercury in the environment and its toxic actions, including a discussion on epidemiological studies of prenatal exposure. Molybdenum is essential to a variety of organisms, and is distributed widely in the environment owing to its diverse chemistry and its technological and agricultural applications. Chapter 14 provides a balanced picture of the complex environmental chemistry of molybdenum, including its interactions with copper, which can be either antagonistic or beneficial from the interplay of individual components in the biogeosphere. The intracellular concentration of heavy metals is kept in balance by a variety of metal-transporters. Many of the metals are toxic in excess. Bacterial metal resistance probably arose early in evolution owing to widespread geochemical sources of metals. Chapter 15, devoted to the microbial resistance mechanism of heavy metals, discusses the mechanisms of resistance to zinc, cadmium, lead, copper, arsenic, and antimony in bacteria. The exposure to metal that is harmless to some bacteria may be destructive to others with specific genetic changes. Chapter 16 examines genetic susceptibility to heavy metals in the environment, noting how each metal is expected to have its own series of transporters. Transport of several metals is highly dependent upon the concentration of the other metals. This balance can be disrupted when any gene within the balanced system is nonfunctional. The interaction between genes and environment—considered critical for avoiding metal toxicity not only for humans but also for a wide variety of animal species—is described in detail. Selenium has multiple biological actions as an essential trace element, a modifier of other toxic elements, an anticarcinogenic agent, and a toxicant. These are all discussed in Chapter 17, which provides an overview of the entire profile of biological actions of selenium in nutrition and toxicology. Over the past three decades, elements such as arsenic, antimony, gallium... 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