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This page intentionally left blank Understanding Environmental Pollution A Primer Marquita K. Hill Formerly of the University of Maine Cambridge University Press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org 978-0-521-82024-0 © M. K. Hill 2004 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2004 ISBN-13 978-0-521-82024-0 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-82024-3 hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-52726-2 paperback ISBN-10 0-521-52726-0 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. This book is dedicated with love and gratitude to my husband, John C. Hassler, and to our children Evan Samli, Matthew Hassler, and Cynthia Filgate. Preface Understanding Environmental Pollution has been updated and almost completely revised. The book summarizes the basics of pollution, working to use language understandable to those with limited science background while remaining useful to those with more. The impacts of pollution on environmental health receive greater attention in this edition, and there are more case descriptions which pose reflective questions to the reader. The second edition also has greater emphasis on pollution problems in less-developed nations. It often delves into pollution that moves beyond national boundaries. In addition, more references are included at the end of chapters, including many web sites. A framework: Chapters 1 through 4 provide basic information on pollution, the issues it poses and on reducing pollution. They also discuss concepts important to later chapters. Chapter 1 introduces basic concepts in pollution and addresses how humans are affecting the environment’s ability to provide "natural services." Chapter 2 describes “comparative risk assessment,” and overviews how society deals with risks. The waste-management hierarchy with its stress on pollution prevention is introduced here, as is industrial symbiosis treating wastes as resources. Chapter 3 introduces toxicity and factors affecting whether a chemical will have adverse effects. Chapter 4 emphasizes that exposure must occur before a chemical poses a risk, and describes how chemical risk is evaluated. Pollution basics: Chapter 5 delves into the major pollutants in ambient air, the concerns they pose, their sources, and efforts to reduce their emissions. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 examine global-change issues that originate with air pollution—acid deposition, global climate change, and stratospheric-ozone depletion. Chapter 9 examines major water pollutants, problems they cause, their sources and actions to reduce emissions. The “nitrogen glut” is also overviewed, a problem now of global dimensions. Chapter 10 inspects drinking-water contaminants with an emphasis on pathogenic organisms, especially in less-developed countries. Chapter 11 summarizes the basics of the enormous quantities of solid waste we produce, and Chapter 12 does the same with hazardous waste. More detail: Because so many pollution problems originate with the way we produce and use energy, Chapter 13 is devoted to this issue. It also examines alternative sources of energy which often have their own problems. Chapter 14 introduces “PBTs,” organic chemicals that are persistent, bioaccumulate, and are toxic too. Chapter 15 examines metals, many of which are also PBTs. As Chapter 16 summarizes, pesticides are pollutants of continuing concern but alternatives to synthetic pesticides often raise their own problems. Chapter 17 focuses on pollution closer to home, the pollutants that concentrate within our households. Chapter 18 ends the book on the hopeful theme of Zero waste, zero emissions. While society must continue to grapple with the basics of pollution control and pollution prevention, others are going further. Some businesses, cities, even whole countries aim for an ideal of zero waste, zero emissions and work toward making resources out of what are now wastes. Acknowledgements Much gratitude goes to my husband, Dr. John C. Hassler, who faithfully cares for my computer hardware and software. I thank Richard Hill, Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering, for his thoughtful input on energy issues. I am thankful too for an extremely useful tool, the database management system AskSam The Free-Form Database (Seaside Software, Perry, Florida). I have faithfully used this easily searchable and evolving system for 15 years to record titles and basic information from a multitude of articles and many books. Such a database is invaluable for a text such as this which requires so much specific information. Recent years have also seen an explosion of useful web pages, many of which are referenced under Internet resources in each chapter. Government web pages were especially useful, the US Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Energy, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Geologic Survey, and the United Nations Environmental Program. List of Abbreviations and Acronyms AC: Alternating current ADI: Acceptable daily intake AIDS: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome ATSDR: Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Registry (a US agency) BAT: Best available technology BOD: Biochemical oxygen demand Bt: Bacillus thuringiensis (a bacterium) Btu: British thermal unit (a unit of energy) CAA: Clean Air Act (a US law) CAFE: Clean Air for Europe CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (a US agency) CDM: Clean Development Mechanism CERCLA: Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund) (a US law relating to hazardous-waste sites) CPSD: Consumer Product Safety Division (a US agency) CRT: Cathode ray tube CSO: Combined sewer overflow CWA: Clean Water Act DBP: Disinfection byproduct DC: Direct current DfE: Design for the environment DOE: Department of Energy (a US agency) EIA: Energy Information Administration EMF: Electromagnetic field EPA: Environmental Protection Agency (a US agency) EPR: Extended producer responsibility (also called take-back) ETS: Environmental Tobacco Smoke EU: European Union EV: Electric vehicle FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization (a UN agency) FDA: Food and Drug Administration FFDCA: Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act (a US law) FFV: Flexibly fueled vehicle FIFRA: Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (a US law) FQPA: Food Quality Protection Act GCM: General circulation model GE: Genetically engineered organism GI: Gastrointestinal GM: Genetically modified xiv Ключевые слова: toxic, air pollution, nitrogen dioxide, increase, cancer, cold weather, dioxide, material, disposable cup, nitric acid, developed, environmental medium, earlier era, factor, plastic, adipic acid, source, greenhouse, industrial, environmental hormone, recycling, diethylene glycol, site, time, clean, achilles heel, emission, coal, hazardous wastes, water, vehicle, national aeronautics, polyaspartic acid, pollutant, questions, wa, wastemanagement hierarchy, life, exxon valdez, earth, crop, environment, reducing, wood-burning stove, ha, non-target organism, produce, citizens organization, dead zone, pollution, atmospheric administration, disease, epa govowowoceansnccr, mercury, high, problem, land-based activities, gaseous suspension, ?sh, exposed, industrial motor, stockholm convention, black triangle, disposable diaper, toxicity, austrian smuggler, process, latin america, science, climate, child, pesticide, health, technology, change, cloth diaper, major, thyroid gland, hot spot, wet cloth, dose, retail store, deposition, engineering news, including, ozone, oil, red, kerosene heater, light, rotterdam convention, industrial revolution, individual, country, people, xed-speed motor, national academy, nitrogen oxide, industrial ecology, aquatic organism, biologically plausible, nuclear bomb, waste, digestive tract, meteorological organization, le, small, doe, north carolina, baking soda, metal, study, table, curitiba brazil, food, exposure, los angeles, year, environmental, number, stratospheric-ozone depletion, congress, land, detergent, air, novo nordisk, irresistible automobile, carbon dioxide, fuel, acid, chapter, nitrogen glut, cosmic ray, montreal protocol, environmental performance, area, step, solid, atmospheric deposition, result, chemical, gastrointestinal tract, massachusetts institute, basel convention, risk, waste-management hierarchy, reduce, united, european union, level, control, drinking, xed nitrogen, nitrogen, carbon, acetic acid, hubbard brook, colder, human, carbon monoxide, paper, methyl bromide, case, union carbide, natural, radiation, animal, power, gas, major culprit, aquatic creature, hong kong, box, drinking water, hazardous, epa, major environmental, uidized bed, plant, organic, substance, organic farming, fatty tissue, city, product, lead, amoco, assessment, energy, facility, standard, national oceanic, population, fossil fuels, environmental defense, energy-efcient motor, explain, unneeded light, kyoto protocol, sunspot cycle, concern, body, c f, soil, china, ionizing radiation, higher, large, virgin pvc, mothers health